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GRECIAN  HISTORY.     J.  R.  Joy.  $1.00 

CALLIAS,  AN  HISTORICAL,  ROMANCE.    A.  J.  Church.  1.00 
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GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE.      Smith  and 

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CLASSIC  GREEK  COURSE  IN  ENGLISH.    Tr.  C.  Wilkinson.  1.00 

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Cbautauqua  "Reading  Circle  literature 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE 

P,Y 

T.  ROGER  SMITH,  F.  R.  I.  B.  A. 
AND 

GREEK    SCULPTURE 

BY 

GEORGE  REDFORD,  F.  R.  C.  S. 

WITH   AN"    INTRODUCTION*    HV 

WILLIAM  H.  GOODYEAR 
"CClitb  /fcang  1f llustrations 


MKADYILI.K    PI'.XNA 

KI.OOI)  AM)   \-INCKNT 

«Cbe  Chautauqtia.-Ccnturn  press 

1892 


The  required  books  of  the  C.  L.  S.  C.  are  recommended  by  a 
Council  of  six.  It  must,  however,  be  understood  that  recom- 
mendation does  not  involve  an  approval  by  the  Council,  or 
by  any  member  of  it,  of  every  principle  or  doctrine  con- 
tained in  the  book  recommended. 


Published  by  arrangement  with  Sampson  Low,  Marston  and  Com- 
pany, Limited,  London. 


The  Chautauqua- Century  Press,  Meadvillc,  Pa.,  U.  &'.  A. 
Electrotyped,  Printed,  and  Bound  by  Flood  &  Vincent. 


sra 

URt 


PREFACE. 


THE  customary  discrimination  and  wisdom  of  the  mana- 
gers of  the  Chuutauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle 
are  apparent  in  their  choice  of  the  compendiums  on 
Greek  architecture  and  Greek  sculpture  which  are  united  in 
this  book.  Both  are  written  by  English  scholars  of  distin- 
guished reputation.  Both  are  written  in  a  scientific  spirit  and 
in  such  manner  as  to  supply  much  exact  matter-of-fact  infor- 
mation, without  sacrificing  popular  quality. 

Some  slight  additions  and  corrections,  made  necessary  by 
discoveries  or  by  revisions  of  scientific  opinion,  dating  since 
the  original  books  were  written,  have  been  entered  in  an  ap- 
pendix. 

My  duty  in  the  preparation  of  a  preface  is  to  point  out,  first, 
that  this  work  on  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture  is  part  of 
a  course  of  reading  on  Greek  history  ["Grecian  History,"  by 
James  II.  Joy]  and  to  remark  that  the  general  historical  in- 
formation supplied  by  this  other  book  is  a  most  essential  intro- 
duction to  the  present  work.  All  interest  in  ancient  art 
presupposes  an  interest  in  ancient  history  as  well  as  some 
general  knowledge  about  it.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  true  that 
ancient  art  is  a  most  valuable  means  itself  of  teaching  ancient 
history.  Not  only  is  the  impulse  offered  to  the  imagination 
by  the  actually  existing  relics  and  tangible  remnants  of  the 
past  a  point  to  be  considered  ;  but  these  relics  are  themselves 
illustrations  of  the  lives  of  the  Greeks  which  are  superior  to 
any  verbal  or  literary  descriptions  of  a  bygone  age.  The  life 
of  a  nation  cannot  be  described  by  a  chronicle  of  events. 


IV  PREFACE. 

Greek  life  is  not  only  suggested  by  works  of  Greek  art,  but 
it  was  also  actually  incorporated  in  them. 

Since  printing  has  displaced  the  arts  of  form  as  a  means 
of  conveying  ideas,  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  from  our  own 
conceptions  of  art — considered  as  a  fact  in  modern  life — how 
much  the  arts  of  design  were  bound  up  with  the  everyday 
lives  and  everyday  needs  of  ancient  peoples.  The  superiority 
of  ancient  Greek  art  to  our  own  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
its  mission  was  superior  ;  that  it  was  a  means  of  ideal  national 
expression  and  popular  national  instruction,  which  has  now 
been  displaced  by  printed  literature.  The  technical  quality  of 
an  art  is  dependent  on  the  amount  of  public  patronage  and 
of  public  practice.  Whatever  is  done  much  is  done  well,  and 
the  only  stable  condition  of  good  art  is  a  large  public  demand 
for  it. 

In  Greek  sculpture  and  relief,  the  Greeks  had  their  Bible  ; 
they  expressed  in  them  their  religious  beliefs  and  ideals. 
These  arts  were  also  the  counterpart  and  summary  of  their 
whole  national  literature.  These  arts  were  moreover  an  epit- 
ome and  reproduction  of  that  life  of  the  gymnasium  and  of 
physical  exercise  which  was  the  basis  of  their  whole  political 
existence,  and  which  was  originally  called  into  being  by  their 
system  of  military  training. 

It  is  therefore  as  a  means  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Greeks 
themselves  that  we  should  consider  the  study  of  Greek  art  im- 
portant. Considering  that  the  Greeks  are  the  fathers  of  politi- 
cal self-government,  that  their  system  of  individual  training 
and  state  education  was  of  unsurpassed  excellence,  that  their 
refinement  and  simplicity  of  taste  have  furnished  models 
for  all  later  time,  and  that  the  development  of  European 
history  and  European  civilization  began  with  them,  and  con- 
sidering also  that  their  art  has  a  comprehensive  significance 
for  their  history  at  large — it  is  clear  that  its  study  is  a  really 
necessary  branch  of  liberal  culture. 

Although  the  direct  relations  of  Greek  art  to  Greek  life  and 
religion  are  most  obvious  in  their  statuary  and  reliefs,  and 
although  the  implications  of  their  refinement  and  thoughtful 
minds  are  perhaps  not  so  immediately  obvious  in  their  archi- 
tecture, this  is  only  because  the  connection  between  cause  and 
effect  in  this  case  requires  some  explanation  and  presupposes 


PREFACE.  V 

a  not  always  recognized,  but  very  positive,  relation  between 
a  nation's  life  and  a  nation's  arcbitecture. 

Aside  from  its  relations  to  Greek  life,  the  study  of  Greek 
architecture  is  undoubtedly  the  best  means  of  reaching  the 
important  principle  that  all  good  constructive  art,  of  whatever 
time  or  nation,  implies  and  demands  constructive  thought 
and  constructive  common  sense.  Aside  from  this  value  of  the 
study  of  Greek  architecture  as  a  means  to  establishing  artistic 
principles  for  construction  in  general,  it  should  also  be  remem- 
bered that  multitudes  of  modern  buildings  exhibit  Greek  con- 
struction or  employ  Greek  details — that  these  details  are  often 
misused  and  corrupted,  and  that  a  study  of  the  original  forms 
is  essential  to  the  criticism  of  such  misuses  and  corruptions. 
Such  study  is  also  essential  to  comprehension  of  the  matter-of- 
fact  history  of  modern  architectural  styles.  This  point  has, 
however,  been  developed  sufficiently  by  the  author  of  the 
compendium  of  Greek  architecture. 

I  have  so  far  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  studies 
furthered  by  this  book  as  being  a  branch  of  history,  because  it 
is  a  common  thing  to  consider  the  Greeks  as  having  had  a 
special  aptitude  for  "art,"  with  implication  of  corresponding 
deficiencies  in  other  fields  of  life  ;  whereas  the  fact  is  that  their 
art  represents  their  aptitudes,  character,  and  life  in  general. 

Let  me  finish  my  preface  by  pointing  out  that  all  book 
studies  of  Greek  art,  and  all  reading  about  Greek  art,  or  any 
other  art,  are  the  very  least  part  of  the  matter  in  hand,  which 
is  to  know  the  monuments  themselves.  All  books  on  the  sub- 
ject are  purely  a  means  to  this  end.  The  objects  themselves 
are  the  things  which  must  train  the  taste  and  train  the  eye, 
and  this  training  of  taste  and  eye  cannot  in  the  least  degree 
be  achieved  through  any  book.  In  fact  the  whole  aim  and 
object  of  art  training  is  to  supplement  literature,  not  to  make 
literature;  to  exalt  the  importance  of  forms  and  pictures, 
not  to  exalt  the  importance  of  reading  and  writing  about 
them.  If  this  be  so,  it  is  clear  that  a  reader  or  a  student 
who  has  finished  this  book  may  still  have  the  all  important 
work  before  him  quite-  unfinished,  which  is  to  know  the  ob- 
jects which  the  book  describes.  Undoubtedly  engravings  are 
an  assistance  to  some  extent,  and  these  the  work  has  very 
liberally  furnished,  but  these  are  rather  a  means  to  illustrating 


VI  PREFACE. 

the  book,  and  are  not  to  be  considered  in  any  sense  as  making 
a  knowledge  of  the  originals  less  important.  It  is  true  that 
we  cannot  all  make  travels  in  Greece  to  inspect  Greek  ruins, 
and  that  we  cannot  all  make  visits  to  the  European  museums 
which  contain  the  works  of  the  Greek  chisel.  By  a  knowledge 
of  the  actual  objects  I  understand,  however,  a  knowledge  of 
photographs,  casts,  and  models  of  them.  Book  engravings 
are  inadequate  because  they  cannot  possibly  represent  the 
multitude  of  objects,  and  because  they  lack  the  veracity  of 
photographs  and  casts.  Every  possible  access  to  the  various 
cast  collections  which  are  being  so  numerously  founded  in  this 
country  is  an  indispensable  accompaniment  to  the  study  of 
this  book.  In  default  of  such  access  it  must  be  said  that 
photographs  will  very  ably  make  good  this  deficiency,  but 
that  contact  at  least  with  abundant  photographic  illustration 
is  really  indispensable.  I  should  therefore  define  the  practical 
aim  of  this  book  to  be  that  of  bringing  the  reader  in  contact 
with  photographs  or  casts  of  Greek  sculpture,  and  to  be  that 
of  bringing  the  reader  in  contact  with  models  and  casts  and 
photographs  of  Greek  architecture.  These  casts,  in  the  case  of 
architecture,  must  naturally  be  confined  to  details — that  is,  to 
simple  capitals,  shafts,  bases,  sections  of  entablature,  etc. 
The  largest  and  best  American  collections  of  casts  of  Greek 
architecture  and  Greek  sculpture  are,  at  date  of  writing,  in 
New  York  and  Boston.  The  New  York  Museum  has  by 
far  the  largest  collection  of  models  and  casts  in  architecture. 
The  Boston  Museum  has  by  far  the  best  and  largest  collection 
of  casts  in  sculpture  (1892).  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  Chau- 
tauqua  Circle  will  take  proper  means  to  recommend  and  make 
accessible  good  collections  of  photographs. 

WM.  H.  GOODYEAR. 


CONTENTS 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

Chapter  Page 

I.    BUILDINGS  OF  THE  DORIC  ORDER        ...        9 

II.    BUILDINGS  OK  TIIK  IONIC  AND  CORINTHIAN  OR- 
DERS          28 

III.    ANALYSIS  OK  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE          .        .      4_! 
GREEK  SCULPTURE 


IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 

SCULPTURE  IN  GENERAL        .... 
ARCHAIC-  GREEK  SCULPTURE 
TEMPLE  DECORATION       

.       59 
.       67 
.       79 
99 

VIII. 

EXAMPLES          
APPENDIX           

.     11-5 

.     137 
143 

FK;  1.— UitEKK  HONEYSUCKLE 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


CHAPTEE   I. 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 
Riiildings  of  the  Doric  Order. 

THE  architecture  of  Greece  has  a  value  far  higher  than 
that  attaching  to  any  of  the  styles  which  preceded 
it,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  buildings  and  the 
astonishing  refinement  which  the  best  of  them  display.  This 
architecture  has  a  further  claim  on  our  attention  as  being 
virtually  the  parent  of  that  of  all  the  nations  of  "Western 
Europe.  We  cannot  put  a  finger  upon  any  features  of  Egyp- 
tian, Assyrian,  or  Persian  architecture  the  influence  of  which 
has  survived  to  the  present  day  except  such  as  were  adopted 
by  the  Greeks.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  feature,  no 
ornament,  nor  even  any  principle  of  design  which  the  Greek 
architects  employed  that  can  be  said  to  have  now  become 
obsolete.  Not  only  do  we  find  direct  reproductions  of  Greek 
architecture  forming  part  of  the  practice  of  every  European 
country,  but  we  are  able  to  trace  to  Greek  art  the  parentage 
of  many  of  the  forms  and  features  of  Roman,  Byzantine, 
and  Gothic  architecture,  especially  those  connected  with  the 
column  and  which  grew  out  of  its  artistic  use.  Greek  archi- 
tecture did  not  include  the  arch  and  all  the  forms  allied 
to  it,  such  as  the  vault  and  the  dome;  and,  so  far  as  we  know, 
the  Greeks  abstained  from  the  use  of  the  tower.  Examples 
of  both  these  features  were,  it  is  almost  certain,  as  fully 


10  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 

within  the  knowledge  of  the  Greeks  as  were  those  features 
of  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Persian  buildings  which  they 
employed ;  consequently  it  is  to  deliberate  selection  that  we 
must  attribute  this  exclusion.  Within  the  limits  by  which 
they  confined  themselves,  the  Greeks  worked  with  such 
power,  learning,  taste,  and  skill  that  we  may  fairly  claim 
for  their  highest  achievement — the  Parthenon — that  it  ad- 
vanced as  near  to  absolute  perfection  as  any  work  of  art  ever 
has  been  or  ever  can  be  carried. 

Greek  architecture  seems  to  have  begun  to  emerge  from 
the  stage  of  archaic  simplicity  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era  (600  B.C.  is  the  reputed 
date  of  the  old  Doric  Temple  at  Corinth).  All  the  finest 
examples  were  erected  between  that  date  and  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  (323  B.  C.),  after  which  period  it  de- 
clined and  ultimately  gave  place  to  Roman. 

The  domestic  and  palatial  buildings  of  the  Greeks  have 
decayed  or  been  destroyed,  leaving  but  few  vestiges.  We 
know  their  architecture  largely  from  ruins  of  public  build- 
ings and,  to  a  limited  extent,  from  sepulchral  monuments 
remaining  in  Greece  and  in  Greek  colonies.  By  far  the  most 
numerous  and  excellent  among  these  buildings  are  temples. 
The  Greek  idea  of  a  temple  was  different  from  that  enter- 
tained by  the  Egyptians.  The  building  was  to  a  much  greater 
extent  designed  for  external  than  internal  effect.  A  compara- 
tively small  sacred  cell  was  provided  for  the  reception  of 
the  image  of  the  divinity,  usually  with  one  other  cell  behind 
it,  which  seems  to  have  served  as  treasury,  or  sacristy ;  but 
there  were  no  surrounding  chambers,  gloomy  halls,  or  en- 
closed courtyards,  like  those  of  the  Egyptian  temples,  visible 
only  to  persons  admitted  within  a  jealously  guarded  outer 
wall.  The  temple,  it  is  true,  often  stood  within  some  sort 
of  precinct,  but  it  was  accessible  to  all.  It  stood  open  to 
the  sun  and  air;  it  invited  the  admiration  of  the  passer-by; 
its  most  telling  features  and  best  sculpture  were  on  the  ex- 
terior. Whether  this  may  have  been,  in  some  degree,  the  case 
with  Persian  buildings,  we  have  few  means  of  knowing, 
but  certainly  the  attention  paid  by  the  Greeks  to  the  outside  of 
their  temples  offers  a  striking  contrast  to  the  practice  of  the 
Egyptians  and  to  what  we  know  of  that  of  the  Assyrians. 


THE  UOK1C  OKUEK. 


11 


The  temple,  however  grand,  was  always  of  simple  form 
with  a  gable  at  each  end  and  in  this  respect  differed  entirely 
from  the  series  of  halls,  courts,  and  chambers  of  which  a 
great  Egyptian  temple  consisted.  In  the  very  smallest  temple 


FIG.  2.— PLAN  OF  A  SMALL  GREEK  TKMPLE  IN  ANTIS. 

at  least  one  of  the  gables  was  made  into  a  portico  by  the 
help  of  columns  and  two  pilasters  (Fig.  2).  More  important 
temples  had  a  larger  number  of  columns  and  often  a  portico  at 
each  end  (Figs.  3  and  10).  The  most  important  had  columns  on 
the  flanks  as  well  as  at  the  front  and  rear,  the  sacred  cell 
bring,  in  fact,  surrounded  by  them.  It  will  be  apparent  from 
this  that  the  column,  together  with  the  superstructure  which 


FlO.  ;?.—  Pl.AX  OF  A  SMALL  GKEKK  TEMTLK. 


rested  upon   it,  must  have  played  a  very  important  part  in 

Greek  temple  architecture  and  an  inspection  of  any  represen- 

tations of  Greek  buildings  will  at  once  confirm  the  impression. 

We  find  in   Greece   three  distinct  manners,    distinguished 


12  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AXD   SCULPTURE. 

largely  by  the  mode  in  which  the  column  is  dealt  with. 
These  it  would  be  quite  consistent  to  call  "  styles,"  were  it  not 
that  another  name  has  been  so  thoroughly  appropriated  to 
them  that  they  would  hardly  now  be  recognized  were  they  to 
be  spoken  of  as  anything  else  than  "orders."  The  Greek 
orders  are  named  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  Each  of 
them  presents  a  different  series  of  proportions,  moldings, 
features,  and  ornaments,  though  the  main  forms  of  the  build- 
ings are  the  same  in  all.  The  column  and  its  entablature  (the 
technical  name  for  the  frieze,  architrave,  and  cornice,  forming 
the  usual  superstructure),  being  the  most  prominent  features 
in  every  such  building,  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  index 
or  characteristic  from  an  inspection  of  which  the  order  and  the 
degree  of  its  development  can  be  recognized,  just  as  a  botanist 
recognizes  plants  by  their  flowers.  By  reproducing  the  column 
and  entablature,  almost  all  the  characteristics  of  either  of  the 
orders  can  be  copied  ;  and  hence  a  technical  and  somewhat 
unfortunate  use  of  the  word  "order"  to  signify  these  features 
only  has  crept  in  and  has  overshadowed  and  to  a  large  extent 
displaced  its  wider  meaning.  It  is  difficult  in  a  book  on 
architecture  to  avoid  employing  the  word  "order"  when  we 
have  to  speak  of  a  column  and  its  entablature  because  it  has 
so  often  been  made  use  of  in  this  sense.  The  student  must, 
however,  always  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  a  restricted  and 
artificial  sense  of  the  word  and  that  the  column  belonging  to 
any  order  is  always  accompanied  by  the  use  throughout  the 
building  of  the  appropriate  proportions,  ornaments,  and 
moldings  belonging  to  that  order. 

The  origin  of  Greek  architecture  is  a  very  interesting  subject 
for  inquiry,  but,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  almost  all  very 
early  examples  of  the  styles,  it  is  necessarily  obscure.  Such 
information,  however,  as  we  possess,  taken  together  with  the 
internal  evidence  afforded  by  the  features  of  the  matured 
style,  points  to  the  influence  of  Egypt,  to  that  of  Assyria  and 
Persia,  and  to  an  early  manner  of  timber  construction — the 
forms  proper  to  which  were  retained  in  spite  of  the  abandon- 
ment of  timber  for  marble  -as  all  contributing  to  the  formation 
of  Greek  architecture. 

In  Asia  Minor  a  series  of  monuments,  many  of  them  rock- 
cut,  has  been  discovered,  which  throws  a  curious  light  upon  the 


THK   DORIC  ORDER. 


13 


early  growth  of  architecture.  We  refer  to  tombs  found  in 
Lycia  and  attributed  to  about  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  In 
these  we  obviously  have  the  first  work  in  stone  of  a  nation  of 
shipbuilders.  A  Lycian  tomb — such  as  the  one  now  to  be 
seen,  accurately  restored,  in  the  British  Museum — represents  a 
structure  of  beams  of  wood  framed  together,  surmounted  by  a 
roof  which  closely  resembles  a  boat  turned  upside  down.  The 
planks,  the  beams  to  which  they  were  secured,  and  even  a  ridge 
similar  to  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  all  reappear  here,  showing  that 
the  material  in  use  for  building  was  so  universally  timber  that 
when  the  tomb  was  to  be  "graven  in  the  rock  forever"  the 


Fir..  •!.— ANCIENT  GKEEK  WAI..I..  OF  UNWKOUGIIT  STONE  KKOM 
SAMOTHRACE. 

forms  of  a  timber  structure  were  those  that  presented  them- 
selves to  the  imagination  of  the  sculptor.  In  other  instances 
the  resemblance  to  shipwrights'  work  disappears  and  that  of  the 
carpenter  is  followed  by  that  of  the  mason.  Thus  we  find 
imitations  of  timber  beams  framed  together  and  of  overhang- 
ing low-pitched  roofs,  in  some  cases  carried  on  unsquared 
rafters  lying  side  by  side,  in  several  of  these  tombs. 

What  happened  on  the  Asiatic  shore  of  the  /Egean  must 
have  occurred  on  the  (Jreek  shores;  and,  though  none  of  the 
very  earliest  specimens  of  reproduction  in  stone  of  timber 
structures  has  come  down  to  us,  there  are  abundant  traces, 


14 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


as  we  shall  presently  see,  of  timber  originals  in  buildings 
of  the  Doric  order.  Timber  originals  were  not,  however,  the 
only  sources  from  which  the  early  inhabitants  of  Greece  drew 
their  inspiration. 

Constructions  of  extreme  antiquity  and  free  from  any  ap- 
pearance of  imitating  structures  of  timber  mark  the  sites 
of  the  oldest  cities  of  Greece,  Mycense  and  Orchomenos,  for 
example,  the  most  ancient  being  Pelasgic  city  walls  of  un- 
wrought  stone  (Fig.  4).  The  so-called  Treasury  of  Atreus  at 
Mycenae,  a  circular  underground  chamber  48  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter,  and  with  a  pointed  vault,  is  a  well-known  specimen 
of  more  regular  yet  archaic  building.  Its  vault  is  constructed 
of  stones  corbeling  over  one  another  and  is  not  a  true  arch 


FIG.  5.— PijANOF  TREASURY 
OF  ATKEUS  AT  MYCENAE. 


Fro.  (i.— SECTION  OF  THE  TREASURY  OF 
ATRKUS  AT  MYCKM.E. 


(Figs.  5,  6).  The  treatment  of  an  ornamental  column  found 
here  and  of  the  remains  of  sculptured  ornaments  over  a  neigh- 
boring gateway  called  the  Gate  of  the  Lions  is  of  very  Asiatic 
character  and  seems  to  show  that  whatever  influences  had 
been  brought  to  bear  on  their  design  were  Oriental. 

A  wide  interval  of  time  and  a  great  contrast  in  taste  separate 
the  early  works  of  Pelasgic  masonry  and  even  the  chamber 
at  Mycenro  from  the  rudest  and  most  archaic  of  the  re- 
maining Hellenic  works  of  Greece.  The  Doric  temple  at 
Corinth  is  attributed,  as  lias  been  stated,  to  the  seventh 
century  B.  C.  This  was  a  massive  masonry  structure  with 
extremely  short,  stumpy  columns  and  strong  moldings,  but 
presenting  the  main  features  of  the  Doric  style,  as  we  know  it, 


THE  DORIC   OKDEK. 


15 


ill  its  earliest  and  rudest  form.  Successive  examples  (Figs. 
7,  8,  and  9)  show  increasing  slenderness  of  proportions  and  re- 
finement of  treatment,  and  are  accompanied  by  sculpture  which 
approaches  nearer  and  nearer  to  perfection ;  but  in  the  later 
and  best  buildings,  as  in  the  earliest  and  rudest,  certain  forms 
are  retained  for  which  it  seems  impossible  to  account  except 
on  the  supposition  that  they  are  reproductions  in  stone  or 


FIG.  7.— GKKEK  DORIC  CAPI- 
TAL FROM  SELIXUS. 


FIG.  8.— GREEK  DORIC  CAPI- 
TAL, FROM  THE  THESEUM. 


Fli:.  !>.—<";  11KEK    DoiUO  C'APITAL  FROM  8AMOTHRACF. 

marble  of  a  timber  construction.  These  occur  in  the  en- 
tablature while  the  column  is  of  a  type  which  it  is  hard  to 
believe  is  not  copied  from  originals  in  use  in  Egypt  many  cen- 
turies earlier. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  examine  a  fully  developed  Greek 
Doric  temple  of  the  best  period  and  in  doing  so  we  shall 
be  able  to  recognize  the  forms  referred  to  in  the  preceding 


16 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


paragraph  as  we  come  to  them.    The  most  complete  Greek 
Doric  temple  was  the  Parthenon,  the  work  of  the  architect 


CD 


it- 


FIG.  10.— PLAX  OF  THE  PARTHENON  AT  ATHENS. 

IctimiR,  the  temple  of  the  Virgin  Goddess  Athene  (Minerva) 
at  Athens,  and  on  many  accounts  this  building  will  be  the 
best  to  select  for  our  purpose  (Frontispiece). 


THE  DORIC   ORDER. 


17 


The  Parthenon  at  Athens  stood  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
rock  and  within  an  irregularly  shaped  enclosure,  something 
like  a  cathedral  close,  entered  through  a  noble  gateway, 
called  the  Propylsea.  The  temple  itself  was  of  perfectly  regu- 
lar plan  and  stood  quite  free  from  dependencies  of  any  sort. 
It  consisted  of  a  cella,  or  sacred  cell,  in  which  stood  the 
statue  of  the  goddess,  with  one  chamber  (the  treasury)  be- 
hind. In  the  cella  and  also  in  the  chamber  behind  there 
were  columns.  A  series  of  columns  surrounded  this  building, 


p             t 

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v 

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Mm 


mm 


FIG.  11.— THE  ROOF  OF  A  GREEK  DORIC  TKMPLE,  SHOWING  THE 
MARBLE  TILES. 

and  at  either  end  was  a  portico,  eight  columns  wide  and 
two  deep.  There  were  two  pediments,  or  gables,  of  flat  pitch, 
one  at  each  end.  The  whole  stood  on  a  basement  of  steps  ;  the 
building,  exclusive  of  the  steps,  being  228  feet  long  by  101  feet 
wide  and  64  feet  high.  The  columns  were  each  84  feet,  3  inches 
high  and  more  than  (>  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  ;  a  portion 
of  the  shaft  and  of  the  capital  of  one  is  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  a  magnificent  reproduction,  full  size,  of  the  column  and  its 
entablature  may  be  seen  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris. 
The  ornaments  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  sculpture  of 


FIG.  12.— A  CONSTRUCTIONAL  YJF.W  OF  TUP:  PARTHENON. 


THE   DOK1O   OltDEK. 


19 


the  very  finest  quality,  executed  by  or  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Phidias.  Of  this  sculpture  many  specimens  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  They  are  called  the  "  Elgin  Marbles," 
after  Lord  Elgin,  who  brought  them  from  Greece  in  1816  and 
afterwards  sold  them  to  the  British  government. 

The  construction  of  this  temple  was  of  the  most  solid  and 
durable  kind,  marble  being  the  material  used  ;  and  the  work- 
manship was  most  careful  in  every  part  of  which  remains 
have  come  down  to  us.  The  roof  was,  no  doubt,  made  of 
timber  and  covered  with  marble  tiles  (Fig.  11),  carried  on 


FIG.  13. — SECTION  OF  THE  GKEEK  DOKIC  TEMPLE  AT  PJESTU.M.    As 
RESTORED  UY  BOTTICIIEI:. 

a  timber  framework,  all  traces  of  which  have  entirely  per- 
ished ;  and  the  mode  in  which  it  was  constructed  is  a  subject 
upon  which  authorities  differ,  especially  as  to  what  provision 
was  made  for  the  admission  of  light.  The  internal  columns, 
found  in  other  temples  as  well  as  in  the  Parthenon,  were 
no  doubt  employed  to  support  this  roof,  as  is  shown  in  Bot- 
ticher's  restoration  of  the  Temple  at  IVstum,  which  we 
reproduce  (Fig.  U>),  though  without  pledging  ourselves  to  its 
accuracy;  for,  indeed,  it  seems  probable  that  something  more1 
or  less  like  the  clerestory  of  a  Gothic  church  must  have  been 


'  for-  f  Ovolo. 
nice  |  Corona. 


Pediment.  .". . 


Mutules  T  —  rr  ~J 

I 

1 

1 

Frieze    vf\  t  h  -^ 
triglyphsand  " 
metopes  

B 

^  J 

1 

Fillet      w  i  t  h  ^Tkja, 
gutta?  (fisSSUui 

rvi'A's  -i  i  s  -;':  k  <•  h  'ltii  s:s.  's'.  \i 

S'CSlSlilS'JlSl^SlSlStSlSlS'SJ^'"  sib 

Architrave.  .  . 

artiz:  f 

tj.      ^J^T^TJ- 


(.Echmuh.    ^^)\yj^^                                  ^^MM£^ 

i  _i 

1    ii 

• 

Shaft  or  Column. 

.     .  . 



i 

.     -•-- 

Stylobatf.        .    .  .    ! 

1 

Fi<;.  11.—  THE  CREEK  DORIC  ORDER  FROM  THE  THESEUM. 

TICK   DORIC   ORDER.  21 

employed  to  admit  light  to  these  buildings,  as  we  know  was 
the  case  in  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak.  But  this  structure, 
if  it  existed,  has  entirely  disappeared. 

The  order  of  the  Parthenon  was  Doric,  and  the  leading 
proportions  were  as  follows :  The  column  was  5.56  diameters 
high ;  the  whole  height,  including  the  stylobate,  or  steps, 
might  be  divided  into  nine  parts,  of  which  two  go  to  the  steps, 


FIG.  16.— THE  FILLETS  UNDER  A 
GREEK  DORIC  CAPITAL. 

FIG.  15. — PLAN  OF  A  GKEEK  DORIC 
COLUMN. 

six  to  tne  column,   and  one   to  the    entablature,   or    super- 
structure. 

The  Greek  Doric  order  is  without  a  base  ;  the  shaft  of  the 
column  springs  from  the  top  step  and  tapers  toward  the  top, 
the  outline  being  not,  however,  straight,  but  of  a  subtle  curve, 
known  technically  as  the  cntaxis  of  the  column.  This  shaft  is 
channeled  with  twenty  shallow  channels,*  the  ridges  separat- 
ing one  from  another  being  very  fine  lines.  A  little  below  the 
molding  of  the  capital,  fine  sinkings,  forming  lines  round  the 
shaft,  exist,  and  above  these  the  channels  of  the  flutes  are 
stopped  by  or  near  the  commencement  of  the  projecting 
molding  of  the  capital.  This  molding,  which  is  of  a  section 
calculated  to  convey  the  idea  of  powerful  support,  is  called  the 
rr-hiniifi,  and  its  lower  portion  is  encircled  by  a  series  of  fillets 
(Fig.  1(5),  which  are  cut  into  it.  Above  the  echinus,  which  is 
circular,  like  the  shaft,  comes  the  highest  member — the  abacutt 
(Fig.  14),  a  square,  stout  slab  of  marble,  which  completes  the 
capital  of  the  column.  The  whole  is  most  skillfully  designed 
to  convey  the  idea  of  sturdy  support  and  yet  to  clothe  the 
support  with  grace.  The-  strong  proportions  of  the  shaft,  the 

*  In  a  few  instances  a  smaller  number  is  found. 


22 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


slight  curve  of  its  outline,  the  lines  traced  upon  its  surface  by 
the  channels,  and  even  the  vigorous,  uncompromising  planting 
of  it  on  the  square  step  from  which  it  springs,  all  contribute  to 
make  the  column  look  strong.  The  check  given  to  the  vigor- 
ous upward  lines  of  the  channels  on  the  shaft  by  the  first 
sinkings  and  their  arrest  at  the  point  where  the  capital 
spreads  out,  intensified  as  it  is  by  the  series  of  horizontal  lines 
drawn  round  the  echinus  by  the  fillets  cut  into  it,  all  seem  to 
convey  the  idea  of  spreading  the  supporting  energy  of  the 
column  outward  ;  and  the  abacus  appears  naturally  fitted, 
itself  inert,  to  receive  a  burden  placed  upon  it  and  to  transmit 
its  pressure  to  the  capital  and  shaft  below. 


FIG.  17.— CAPITAL  OF  A  GREKK  DORIC  COI.TJJIX  FROM  .EG 
WITH  COL.OKED  DECORATION. 

The  entablature  which  formed  the  superstructure  consisted 
first  of  a  small  square  beam — the  architrave,  which,  it  may 
be  assumed,  represents  a  square  timber  beam  that  occupied  the 
same  position  in  the  primitive  structures.  On  this  rests  a 
second  member  called  the  frieze,  the  prominent  feature  of 
which  is  a  series  of  slightly  projecting  features,  known  as 
triglyphs  (three  channels)  (Fig.  20),  from  the  channels  running 
down  their  face.  These  closely  resemble,  and  no  doubt 
actually  represent,  the  ends  of  massive  timber  beams,  which 
must  have  connected  the  colonnade  to  the  wall  of  the  cell  in 
earlier  buildings.  At  the  bottom  of  each  is  a  row  of  small  pend- 
ants,  known  as  (jititw,  which  closely  resemble  wooden  pins, 
such  as  would  be  used  to  keep  a  timber  beam  in  place.  The 


THE  DORIC  OKIJKK. 


23 


panels  between  the  triglyphs  are  usually  as  wide  as  they  are 
high.      They  are  termed  metopes  and  sculpture  commonly 


FIG.  18.— SECTION  OF  THE  ENTABLATURE  OF  THE  GREEK  DORIC  OKDER. 


FIG.  lit.— 1'i.AN,  LOOKING  IT,  OF  PART  OF  A  URKKK  DORIC  I'KRISTVLK. 

occupies  them.     The  third  division  of  the  entablature,  the  cor- 
nice, represents  the  overhanging  eaves  of  the  roof. 
The  cornices  employed  in  classic  architecture  may  be  almost 


24 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AXD  SCULPTURE. 


invariably  subdivided  into  three  parts :  the  supporting  part, 
which  is  the  lowest,  the  projecting  part,  which  is  the 
middle,  and  the  crowning  part,  which  is  the  highest  division 
of  the  cornice.  The  supporting  part  in  a  Greek  Doric  cornice 
is  extremely  small.  There  are  no  moldings,  such  as  we  shall 
find  in  almost  every  other  cornice,  calculated  to  convey  the 
idea  of  contributing  to  sustain  the  projection  of  the  cornice, 
but  there  are  slabs  of  marble,  called  mutules  (Fig.  21),  drop- 
ping toward  the  outer  end,  of  which  one  is  placed  over  each 
triglyph  and  one  between  every  two.  These  seem  to  recall,  by 
their  shape,  their  position,  and  their  slope  alike,  the  ends  of 


rr 


n 


FIG.  20.— DETAILS  OF  THE  TKIGI.YPH. 


FlG.  21.— IVFTAI'LS  OF  THE 
MUTCLES. 


the  rafters  of  a  timber  roof  ;  and  their  surface  is  covered  with 
small  projections,  which  resemble  the  heads  of  wooden  pins, 
similar  to  those  already  mentioned.  The  projecting  part,  in 
this  as  in  almost  all  cornices,  is  a  plain  upright  face  of  some 
height,  called  "  the  corona,"  and  recalling  probably  a  "facia," 
or  flat,  narrow  board  such  as  a  carpenter  of  the  present  day 
would  use  in  a  similar  position,  secured  in  the  original 
structure  to  the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  supporting  the  eaves. 
Lastly  the  crowning  part  is,  in  the  Greek  Doric,  a  single  con- 
vex molding,  not  very  dissimilar  in  profile  to  the  ovolo  of  the 
capital  and  forming  what  we  commonly  call  an  eaves-gutter. 
At  the  ends  of  the  building  the  two-  upper  divisions  of  the 


THE  DORIC  ORDER.  25 

cornice — namely,  the  projecting  corona  and  the  crowning 
ovolo — are  made  to  follow  the  sloping  line  of  the  gable,  a 
second  corona  being  also  carried  across  horizontally  in  a  man- 
ner which  can  be  best  understood  by  inspecting  a  diagram  of 
the  corner  of  a  Greek  Doric  building  (Fig.  14)  ;  and  the  tri- 
angular space  thus  formed  was  termed  a  pediment,  and  was 
the  position  in  which  the  finest  of  the  sculpture  with  which 
the  building  was  enriched  was  placed. 

In  the  Parthenon  a  continuous  band  of  sculpture  ran  around 
the  exterior  of  the  cell  near  the  top  of  the  wall. 

One  other  feature  was  employed  in  Greek  temple  archi- 
tecture. The  anta  was  a  square  pillar  or  pier  of  masonry 
attached  to  the  wall  and  corresponded  very  closely  to  our 
pilaster  ;  but  its  capital  always  differed  from  that  of  the  col- 
umns in  the  neighborhood  of  which  it  was  employed.  The 
untce  of  the  Greek  Doric  order,  as  employed  in  the  Parthenon, 


H ?i%! 

81  ••-:  K-i._y{; 


Lr2L:i::iL^ 


FlG.  22.— ELEVATION  ANT)  SECTION  OK  THE  CAPITAL  OF  A 
GKKEK  ANTA,  WITH  COLOKED  DECORATIONS. 

have  a  molded  base,  which  it  will  be  remembered  is  not  the 
case  with  the  column,  and  their  capital  has  for  its  principal 
feature  an  under-cut  molding,  known  as  the  bird's  beak, 
quite  dissimilar  from  the  ovolo  of  the  capital  of  the  column 
(Fig.  2'2).  Sometimes  the  portico  of  a  temple  consisted  of  the 
side  walls  prolonged  and  ending  in  two  antce  with  two  or 
more  columns  standing  between  them. 

The  Parthenon  presents  examples  of  the  most  extraordinary 
refinements  in  order  to  correct  optical  illusions.  The  delicacy 
and  subtlety  of  these  are  extreme,  but  there  can  be  no  manner 
of  doubt  that  they  existed.  The  best  known  correction  is  the 
diminution  in  diameter,  or  taper,  and  the  r»fY/x/x,  or  convex 
curve  of  the  tapered  outline  of  the  shaft  of  the  column.  With- 
out the  taper,  which  is  perceptible  enough  in  the  order  of  this 
building,  and  much  more  marked  in  the  order  of  earlier  build- 


26  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 

ings,  the  columns  would  look  top-heavy  ;  but  the  entasis  is  an 
additional  optical  correction  to  prevent  their  outline  from 
appearing  hollowed,  which  it  would  have  done  had  there  been 
no  curve.  The  columns  of  the  Parthenon  have  shafts  that  are 
over  34  feet  high  and  diminish  from  a  diameter  of  6.15  feet  at 
the  bottom  to  4.81  feet  at  the  top.  The  outline  between  these 
points  is  convex,  but  so  slightly  so  that  the  curve  departs  at 
the  point  of  greatest  curvature  not  more  than  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  from  the  straight  line  joining  the  top  and  bottom. 
This  is,  however,  just  sufficient  to  correct  the  tendency  to  look 
hollow  in  the  middle. 

A  second  correction  is  intended  to  overcome  the  apparent 
tendency  of  a  building  to  spread  outward  toward  the  top. 
This  is  met  by  inclining  the  columns  slightly  inward.  So 
slight,  however,  is  the  inclination,  that  were  the  axes  of  two 
columns  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Parthenon  continued  upward 
till  they  met,  the  meeting  point  would  be  1,952  yards,  or  in 
other  words,  more  than  one  mile  from  the  ground. 

Another  optical  correction  is  applied  to  the  horizontal  lines. 
In  order  to  overcome  a  tendency  which  exists  in  all  long  lines 
to  seem  as  though  they  droop  in  the  middle,  the  lines  of  the 
architrave,  of  the  top  step,  and  of  other  horizontal  features  of 
the  buildings  fire  all  slightly  curved.  The  difference  between 
the  outline  of  the  top  step  of  the  Parthenon  and  a  straight  line 
joining  its  two  ends  is  at  the  greatest  only  just  over  two  inches. 

The  last  correction  which  it  is  necessary  to  name  here  was 
applied  to  the  vertical  proportions  of  the  building.  The 
principles  upon  which  this  correction  rests  have  been  demon- 
strated by  Mr.  John  Pennethorne  ;*  and  it  would  hardly 
come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume  to  attempt  to  state  them 
here  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  small  additions,  amounting  in  the 
entire  height  of  the  order  to  less  than  five  inches,  were  made 
to  the  heights  of  the  various  members  of  the  order,  with  a 
view  to  secure  that  from  one  definite  point  of  view  the  effect  of 
foreshortening  should  be  exactly  compensated  and  so  the 
building  should  appear  to  the  spectator  to  be  perfectly  pro- 
portioned. 

The  Parthenon,   like  many,  if  not  all  Greek  buildings,  was 


*  "Geometry  and  Optics  of  Ancient  Architecture." 


THK  DORIC   OKDKK.  27 

profusely  decorated  with  colored  ornaments,  of  which  nearly 
every  trace  has  now  disappeared,  but  which  must  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  splendid  beauty  of  the  building  as  a 
whole,  and  must  have  emphasized  and  set  off  its  parts.  The 
ornaments  known  as  Doric  frets  were  largely  employed.  They 
consist  of  patterns  made  entirely  of  straight  lines  interlacing, 
and,  while  preserving  the  severity  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  style,  they  permit  of  the  introduction  of  considerable  rich- 
ness. 

The   principal  remaining  examples  of  fragments   of  Greek 
Doric  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  : 

IN*  GHEECE. 

Temple  of  (?)  Athene,  at  Corinth,  ab.  6oO  B.  C. 
Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  in  the  island  of  ^Egina,  ab.  5-50  B.  C. 
Temple  of  Theseus  (Theseum),  at  Athens,  -IGo  B.  C. 

Temple  of  Athene  (Parthenon),  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  fin.  438  B.  C. 
The  Propylcea,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  436-431  B.  C. 
Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 

Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Bassre,*  in  Arcadia  (designed  by  Ictinus). 
Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Phigalia,  in  Arcadia  (built  by  Ictinus). 
Temple  of  Athene,  on  the  rock  of  Sunium,  in  Attica. 
Temple  of  Nemesis,  at  Rhamnus,  in  Attica. 
Temple  of  Demeter  (Ceres),  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica. 

IN  SICILY  AND  SOUTH  ITALY. 

Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  at  Agrigentum,  in  Sicily  (begun  B.  C.  480). 
Temple  of  Egesta  (or  Segesta),  in  Sicily. 
Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  at  Selinus,  in  Sicily  (?  ab.  410  B.  C.). 
Temple  of  (?)  Athene,  at  Syracuse,  in  Sicily. 
Temple  of  Poseidon,  at  Pajstum,  in  South  Italy  (?  ab.  5-50  B.  C.). 


*?  Exterior  Doric— Interior  Ionic. 


FIG.  23.— PALMETTE  AND  HONEYSUCKLE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 

buildings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders. 

THE'  Doric  was  the  order  in  which  the  full  strength  and 
the  complete  refinement  of  the  artistic  character  of  the 
Greeks  were  most  completely  shown.  There  was  a  great 
deal  of  the  spirit  of  severe  dignity  proper  to  Egyptian  art  in  its 
aspect ;  but  other  nationalities  contributed  to  the  formation  of 
the  many-sided  Greek  nature,  and  we  must  look  to  some  other 
country  than  Egypt  for  the  spirit  which  inspired  the  Ionic 
order.  This  seems  to  have  been  brought  into  Greece  by  a  dis- 
tinct race  and  shows  marks  of  an  Asiatic  origin.  The  feature 
which  is  most  distinctive  is  the  one  most  distinctly  Eastern — 
the  capital  of  the  column,  ornamented  always  by  volutes,  i.e. 
scrolls,  which  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  features  similarly 
employed  in  the  columns  found  at  Persepolis.  The  same 
resemblance  can  be  also  detected  in  the  molded  bases  and  even 
the  shafts  of  the  columns,  and  in  many  of  the  ornaments  em- 
ployed throughout  the  buildings. 

In  form  and  disposition  an  ordinary  Ionic  temple  was 
similar  to  one  of  the  Doric  order,  but  the  general  proportions 
are  more  slender  and  the  moldings  of  the  order  are  more 
numerous  and  more  profusely  enriched.  The  column  in  the 
Ionic  order  had  a  base,  often  elaborately  and  sometimes  singu- 


T1IK   IONIC   AND   COHINTHIAX   OUUKKS. 


29 


larly  molded  (Figs.  31,  32).  The  shaft  (Figs.  24,  26)  is  of  more 
slender  proportions  than  the  Doric  shaft.  It  was  fluted,  but 
its  channels  are  more  numerous  and  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  broader  fillets  than  in  the  Doric.  The  distinctive 
feature,  as  in  all  the  orders,  is  the  capital  (Figs.  25,  20),  which 
is  recognized  at  a  glance  by  the  two  remarkable  ornaments 


FIG.  2^.— SHAFT  OF  IONIC 
COLUMN  SHOWING  THE  FLUTINGS. 


FIG.  26.— IONIC  CAPITAL.    SIDE 
ELEVATION. 


FIG.  2"). — IONIC  C.vi'iTAi,.    FRONT  KI.F.V.VTION. 

already  alluded  to  as  like  scrolls  and  known  as  volutes.  These 
generally  formed  the  faces  of  a  pair  of  cushion-shaped  features, 
which  could  be  seen  in  a  side  view  of  the  capital;  but  some- 
times volutes  stand  in  a  diagonal  position,  and  in  almost  every 
building  they  differ  slightly.  The  dlxicus  is  less  deep  than  in 
the  Doric,  and  it  is  always  molded  at  the  edge,  which  was 


Fro.  27.— THE  loxic  ORDER.    FROM  PRIENE,  ASIA  MINOR. 


nd. 


Frieze. 


_J     Architrave  with 
Facias. 


Capital. 


Stylobat 


Fio.  2S.— IONIC  OKDKI:.    FKOM  TIIK  KUKCTIIKTM,  ATIIKNS. 


32 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AXD   SCULPTURE. 


never  the  case  with  the  Doric  abacus.  The  entablature 
(Fig.  27)  is,  generally  speaking,  richer  than  that  of  the  Doric 
order.  The  architrave,  for  example,  has  three  facias  instead  of 
being  plain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  frieze  has  no  triglyphs, 
and  but  rarely  sculpture.  There  are  more  members  in  the 
cornice,  several  moldings  being  combined  to  fortify  the  sup- 
porting portion.  These  have  sometimes  been  termed  "the 
bed  moldings"  ;  and  among  them  occurs  one  which  is  almost 


FIG.  29.— NORTH-WEST  VIEW  OF  THE  ERECHTHEUM,  IN  TIME  OF  PERICLES. 

typical  of  the  order,  and  is  termed  a  dentil  band.  This  mold- 
ing presents  the  appearance  of  a  plain  square  band  of  stone,  in 
which  a  series  of  cuts  had  been  made  dividing  it  into  blocks 
somewhat  resembling  teeth,  whence  the  name.  Such  an  orna- 
ment is  more  naturally  constructed  in  wood  than  in  stone  or 
marble,  but  if  the  real  derivation  of  the  Ionic  order,  as  of  the 
Doric,  be  in  fact  from  timber  structures,  the  dentil  band  is 
apparently  the  only  feature  in  which  that  origin  can  now  be 


THE  IONIC  AND  CORINTHIAN   OKDEKS. 

traced.  The  crowning  member  of  the  cornice  is  a  partly 
hollow  molding,  technically  called  a  cyma  recta,  less  vig- 
orous than  the  convex  ovolo,  of  the  Doric  :  this  molding, 
and  some  of  the  bed  moldings,  were  commonly  enriched  with 


Kia.  80.— PLAN  OF  THE  ERECTHEUM. 


Fro.  31.— IONIC  BASK  FROM  THK 

TKMIM,K  OF  THK  WINOI,F.SS 

VICTORY  (NiKEAPTKKOS). 


Fir,.  32.—  IONIC  BASK  MOLDINGS 
FROM  PKIKNK. 


carving.  Altogether  more  slenderness  and  loss  vigor,  more 
carved  enrichment  and  less  painted  decoration,  more  reliance 
on  architectural  ornament  and  less  on  the  work  of  the  sculptor, 
appear  to  distinguish  those  examples  of  Greek  Ionic  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  as  compared  with  Doric  buildings. 


34  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 

The  most  numerous  examples  of  the  Ionic  order  of  which 
remains  exist  are  found  in  Asia  Minor,  but  the  most  refined 
and  complete  is  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens  (Figs  29,  30),  a  com- 
posite structure  containing  three  temples  built  in  juxtaposition, 
but  differing  from  one  another  in  scale,  levels,  dimensions, 
and  treatment.  The  principal  order  from  the  Erechtheum 
(Fig.  28)  shows  a  large  amount  of  enrichment  introduced  with 
the  most  refined  and  severe  taste.  Specially  remarkable  are 
the  ornaments  (borrowed  from  the  Assyrian  honeysuckle) 
which  encircle  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  at  the  point  where 
it  passes  into  the  capital  and  the  splendid  spirals  of  the 
volutes  (Figs.  25,  26).  The  bases  of  the  columns  in  the  Erech- 
theum. example  are  models  of  elegance  and  beauty.  Those  of 
some  of  the  examples  from  Asia  Minor  are  overloaded  with  a 
vast  number  of  moldings,  by  110  means  always  producing  a 
pleasing  effect  (Figs.  31,  32).  Some  of  them  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  bases  of  the  columns  at  Persepolis. 

The  most  famous  Greek  building  which  was  erected  in  the 
Ionic  style  was  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  This  temple 
has  been  all  but  totally  destroyed,  and  the  very  site  of  it  had 
been  for  centuries  lost  and  unknown  till  the  energy  and 
sagacity  of  an  English  architect  (Mr.  Wood)  enabled  him  to 
discover  and  dig  out  the  vestiges  of  the  building.  Fortunately 
sufficient  traces  of  the  foundation  have  remained  to  render  it 
possible  to  recover  the  plan  of  the  temple  completely  ;  and  the 
discovery  of  fragments  of  the  order,  together  with  representa- 
tions on  ancient  coins  and  a  description  by  Pliny,  have 
rendered  it  possible  to  make  a  restoration  on  paper  of  the 
general  appearance  of  this  famous  temple,  which  must  be 
very  nearly,  if  not  absolutely,  correct. 

The  walls  of  this  temple  enclosed,  as  usual,  a  crlla  (in  which 
was  the  statue  of  the  goddess),  with  apparently  a  treasury 
behind  it ;  they  were  entirely  surrounded  by  a  double  series  of 
columns  with  a  pediment  at  each  end.  The  exterior  of  the 
building,  including  these  columns,  was  about  twice  the  width 
of  the  cclla.  The  whole  structure,  which  was  of  marble,  was 
planted  on  a  spacious  platform  with  steps.  The  account  of 
Pliny  refers  to  thirty-six  columns,  which  he  describes  as 
l<  columme  <-clat<c  "  (sculptured  columns),  adding  that  one  was 
by  Scopas,  a  very  celebrated  artist.  The  fortunate  discovery 


THE  IONIC  AND   CORINTHIAN   ORDERS.  35 

by  Mr.  Wood  of  a  few  fragments  of  those  columns  shows  that 
the  lower  part  of  the  shaft  immediately  above  the  base  was 
enriched  by  a  group  of  figures — about  life  size — carved  in  the 
boldest  relief  and  encircling  the  column.  One  of  these  groups 
has  been  brought  to  the  British  Museum,  and  its  beauty  and 
vigor  enable  the  imagination  partly  to  restore  this  splendid 
feature,  which  certainly  was  one  of  the  most  sumptuous 
modes  of  decorating  a  building  by  the  aid  of  sculpture  which 
has  ever  been  attempted  ;  the  effect  must  have  been  rich  be- 
yond description. 

It  is  worth  remark  that  the  Erechtheum,  which  has  been 
already  referred  to,  contains  an  example  of  a  different,  and 
perhaps  a  not  less  remarkable,  mode  of  combining  sculpture 
with  architecture.  In  one  of  its  three  porticoes  (Fig.  29)  the 
columns  are  replaced  by  standing  female  figures,  known  as 
caryatids,  and  the  entablature  rests  on  their  heads.  This 
device  has  frequently  been  repeated  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
architecture,  but,  except  in  some  comparatively  obscure 
examples,  the  sculptured  columns  of  Ephesus  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  imitated. 

Another  famous  Greek  work  of  art,  the  remains  of  which 
have  been,  like  the  Temple  of  Diana,  disinterred  by  the  energy 
and  skill  of  a  learned  Englishman,  belonged  to  the  Ionic  order. 
To  Mr.  Newton  we  owe  the  recovery  of  the  site  and  consider- 
able fragments  of  the  architectural  features  of  the  Mausoleum 
of  Halicarnassus,  one  of  the  ancient  wonders  of  the  world. 
The  general  outline  of  this  monument  must  have  resembled 
other  Greek  tombs  which  have  been  preserved,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  Lion  Tomb  at  Cnidus  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  plan 
was  square ;  there  was  a  basement,  above  this  an  order,  and 
above  that  a  steep  pyramidal  roof  rising  in  steps,  not  carried  to 
a  point,  but  stopping  short  to  form  a  platform,  on  which  was 
placed  a  qiiadriya  (four-horsed  chariot).  This  building  is 
known  to  have  been  richly  sculptured  and  many  fragments  of 
great  beauty  have  been  recovered.  Indeed  it  was  probably  its 
elaboration,  as  well  as  its  very  unusual  height  (for  the  Greek 
buildings  were  seldom  lofty),  which  led  to  its  being  so 
celebrated. 

The  Corinthian  order,  the  last  to  make  its  appearance,  was 
almost  as  much  Roman  as  Greek,  and  is  hardly  found  in  any 


FIG.  33.— TIIK  CORINTHIAN  ORDER.    FROM  THE  MONUMENT  OF  LYSI- 
CRATKS  AT  ATHENS. 


THE  IONIC  AND  CORINTHIAN  ORDKKS. 


37 


of  the  great  temples  of  the  best  period  of  which  remains  exist 
in  Greece,  though  we  hear  of  its  use.  For  example,  Pausanias 
states  that  the  Corinthian  order  was  employed  in  the  interior 
of  the  Temple  of  Athene  Alea  at  Tegea,  built  by  Scopas,  to 
which  a  date  shortly  after  the  year  394  B.  C.  is  assigned.  The 
examples  which  we  possess  are  comparatively  small  works, 


FIG.  3-1.— CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  FROM  THE  MONUMENT  OK  LYSICKATES 
AT  ATHENS. 

and  in  them  the  order  resembles  the  Tonic,  but  with  the  im- 
portant exceptions  that  the  capital  of  the  column  is  quite 
different,  that  the  proportions  are  altogether  a  little  slenderer, 
and  that  the  enrichments  are  somewhat  more  florid. 

The  capital  of  the  Greek  Corinthian  order,  as  seen  in  the 
Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  at  Athens  (Fig.  35) — a 
comparatively  miniature  example,  but  the  most  perfect  we 
have — is  a  work  of  art  of  marvelous  beauty  (Fig.  34).  It  retains 
a  feature  resembling  the  Ionic  volute,  but  reduced  to  a  very 
small  size,  set  obliquely  and  appearing  to  spring  from  the  sides 
of  a  kind  of  long  bell-shaped  termination  to  the  column.  This 
bell  is  clothed  with  foliage,  symmetrically  arranged  and  much 
of  it  studied,  but  in  a  conventional  manner,  from  the  graceful 
foliage  of  the  acanthus  ;  between  the  two  small  volutes  appears 


FIG.  33.— MoxuMEvr  TO  LV.SICRATES  AT  ATHENS. 


THE  IONIC  AND   CORINTHIAN  OKDKR.S. 


39 


an  Assyrian  honeysuckle  and  tendrils  of  honeysuckle,  con- 
ventionally treated,  occupy  part  of  the  upper  portion  of  the 
capital.  The  abacus  is  molded  and  is  curved  on  the  plan  and 
the  base  of  the  capital  is  marked  by  a  very  unusual  turning- 
down  of  the  flutes  of  the  columns.  The  entire  structure  to 
which  this  belonged  is  a  model  of  elegance  and  the  large 
sculptured  mass  of  leaves  and  tendrils  with  which  it  is 
crowned  is  especially  noteworthy. 


Fig.  36.— CAPITAL  OF  ANT.I;  FROM  MILEITS.    HIDK  VIEW. 

A  somewhat  simpler  Corinthian  capital  and  another  of  very 
rich  design  are  found  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Didynueus  at 
Miletus,  where  also  a  very  elegant  capital  for  the  antce,  or 
pilasters,  is  employed  (Figs.  36,  38).  A  more  ornamental  design 
for  a  capital  could  hardly  be  adopted  than  that  of  the  Lysicra- 
tes  example,  but  there  was  room  for  more  elaboration  in  the 
entablature,  and  accordingly  large  richly-sculptured  brackets 
seem  to  have  been  introduced  and  a  profusion  of  ornament 
was  employed.  The  examples  of  this  treatment  which  remain 
are,  however,  of  Roman  origin  rather  than  Greek. 

The  Greek  cities  must  have  included  structures  of  great 
beauty  and  adapted  to  many  purposes,  of  which  in  most  cases 
few  traces,  if  any,  have  been  preserved.  We  have  no  remains 
of  a  Greek  palace  or  of  Greek  dwelling  houses,  although  those 
at  Pompeii  were  probably  erected  and  decorated  by  Greek 
artificers  for  Roman  occupation.  The  agom  of  a  Greek  city, 
which  was  a  place  of  public  assembly  something  like  the 
Roman  Forum,  is  kno\vn  to  us  only  by  descriptions  in  ancient 
writers,  but  we  possess  some  remains  of  Greek  theaters  ;  and 


THK   IONIC   AND   CORINTHIAN   OKDKRS.  41 

from  these,  aided  by  Roman  examples  and  written  descrip- 
tions, can  understand  what  these  buildings  were.  The  auditory 
was  curved  in  plan,  occupying  rather  more  than  a  semicircle  ; 
the  seats  rose  in  tiers  one  behind  another ;  a  circular  space 
was  reserved  for  the  chorus  in  the  center  of  the  seats  and 
behind  it  was  a  raised  stage,  bounded  by  a  wall  forming  its 
back  and  sides ;  a  rough  notion  of  the  arrangement  can  be 
obtained  from  the  lecture  theater  of  many  modern  colleges, 
and  our  illustration  (Fig.  37)  gives  a  general  idea  of  what 
must  have  been  the  appearance  of  one  of  these  structures. 
Much  of  the  detail  of  these  buildings  is,  however,  a  matter  of 
pure  speculation  and  consequently  does  not  enter  into  the 
scheme  of  this  manual. 


FIG.  38.— CAPITAL  OF  ANT.E  FROM  MILETUS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

QREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 

Analysis. 

THE  plan,  or  floor-disposition,  of  a  Greek   building  was 
always  simple  however  great  its  extent,  was  well  judged 
for  effect,  and  capable  of  being  understood  at  once.    The 
grandest  results  were  obtained  by  simple  means  and  all  con- 
fusion,   uncertainty,    and    complication    were    scrupulously 
avoided.     Refined  precision,  order,  symmetry,  and  exactness 
mark  the  plan  as  well  as  every  part  of  the  work. 

The  plan  of  a  Greek  temple  may  be  said  to  present  many  of 
the  same  elements  as  that  of  an  Egyptian  temple,  but,  so  to 
speak,  turned  inside  out.  Columns  are  relied  on  by  the  Greek 
artist,  as  they  were  by  the  Egyptian  artist,  as  a  means  of 
giving  effect ;  but  they  are  placed  by  him  outside  the  building 
instead  of  within  its  courts  and  halls.  The  Greek,  starting 
with  a  comparatively  small  nucleus  formed  by  the  cell  and  the 
treasury,  encircles  them  by  a  magnificent  girdle  of  pillars  and 
so  makes  a  grand  structure.  The  disposition  of  these  columns 
and  of  the  great  range  of  steps,  or  stylobate,  is  the  most 
marked  feature  in  Greek  temple  plans.  Columns  also  existed, 
it  is  true,  in  the  interior  of  the  building,  but  these  were 
of  smaller  size  and  seem  to  have  been  introduced  to  aid  in 
carrying  the  roof  and  the  clerestory,  if  there  was  one.  They 
have  in  several  instances  disappeared,  and  there  is  certainly  no 


ANALYSIS  OK   GREEK   ARCIIITECTUHE.  43 

ground  for  supposing  that  the  attempt  was  made  to  reproduce 
in  any  Greek  interior  the  grand  but  oppressive  effect  of  a 
hypostyle  hall.  That  was  abandoned,  together  with  the  compli- 
cation, seclusion,  and  gloom  of  the  long  series  of  chambers, 
cells,  etc.,  placed  one  behind  another,  just  as  the  contrasts  and 
surprises  of  tiie  series  of  courts  and  halls  following  in  succession 
were  abandoned  for  the  one  simple  but  grand  mass  built  to  be 
seen  from  without  rather  than  from  within.  In  the  greater 
number  of  Greek  buildings  a  degree  of  precision  is  exhibited, 
to  which  the  Egyptians  did  not  attain.  All  right  angles  are 
absolutely  true ;  the  setting-out  (or  spacing)  of  the  different 
columns,  piers,  openings,  etc.,  is  perfectly  exact ;  and,  in  the 
Parthenon,  the  patient  investigations  of  Mr.  Penrose  and  other 
skilled  observers  have  disclosed  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  well  as 
refinement  which  resembles  the  precision  with  which  astro- 
nomical instruments  are  adjusted  in  Europe  at  the  present 
day,  rather  than  the  rough  and  ready  measurements  of  a 
modern  mason  or  bricklayer. 

What  the  plans  of  Greek  palaces  might  have  exhibited,  did 
any  remains  exist,  is  merely  matter  for  inference  and  con- 
jecture and  it  is  not  proposed  in  this  volume  to  pass  far 
beyond  ascertained  and  observed  facts.  There  can  be,  how- 
ever, little  doubt  that  the  palaces  of  the  West  Asiatic  style 
must  have  at  least  contributed  suggestions  as  to  internal  dis- 
position of  the  later  and  more  magnificent  Greek  mansions. 
The  ordinary  dwelling  houses  of  citizens,  as  described  by 
ancient  writers,  resembled  those  now  visible  in  the  disinterred 
cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  The  chief  characteristic 
of  the  plan  of  these  is  that  they  retain  the  disposition  which  in 
the  temples  was  discarded  ;  that  is  to  say,  all  the  doors  and 
windows  look  into  an  inner  court,  and  the  house  is  as  far 
as  possible  secluded  within  an  encircling  wall.  The  contrast 
between  the  openness  of  the  public  life  led  by  the  men  in 
Greek  cities  and  the  seclusion  of  the  women  and  the  families 
when  at  home,  is  remarkably  illustrated  by  this  difference 
between  the  public  and  private  buildings. 

The  plan  of  the  triple  building  called  the  Erechtheum 
(Fig.  29)  deserves  special  mention  as  an  example  of  an  ex- 
ceptional arrangement  which  appears  to  sci  (he  ordinary  laws 
of  symmetry  at  defiance  and  which  is  calculated  to  produce  a 


44  GKEKK   ARCHITECTUKK  AND   SCULPTURE. 

result  into  which  the  picturesque  enters  at  least  as  much 
as  the  beautiful.  Though  the  central  temple  is  symmetrical, 
the  two  attached  porticoes  are  not  so  and  do  not,  in  position, 
dimensions,  or  treatment,  balance  one  another.  The  result  is 
a  charming  group,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  other  examples 
of  freedom  of  planning  would  have  been  found,  had  more 
remains  of  the  architecture  of  the  great  cities  of  Greece  come 
down  to  our  own  day. 

In  public  buildings  other  than  temples — such  as  the  theater, 
the  (tf/ora,  and  the  basilica — the  Greek  architects  seem  to  have 
had  great  scope  for  their  genius  ;  the  planning  of  the  theaters 
shows  skillful  and  thoroughly  complete  provisions  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  case.  A  circular  disposition  was  here 
introduced — not,  it  is  true,  for  the  first  time,  since  it  is  ren- 
dered probable  by  the  representations  on  sculptured  slabs  that 
some  circular  buildings  existed  in  Assyria  and  circular  build- 
ings remain  in  the  archaic  works  at  Mycenae  ;  but  it  was 
now  elaborated  with  remarkable  completeness,  beauty,  and 
mastery  over  all  the  difficulties  involved.  Could  we  see  the 
great  theater  of  Athens  as  it  was  when  perfect,  we  should 
probably  find  that  as  an  interior  it  was  almost  unrivaled,  alike 
for  convenience  and  for  beauty ;  and  for  these  excellences 
it  was  mainly  indebted  to  the  elegance  of  its  planning.  The 
actual  floor  of  many  of  the  Greek  temples  appears  to  have 
been  of  marble  of  different  colors. 

The  WnllH. 

The  construction  of  the  walls  of  the  Greek  temples  rivaled 
that  of  the  Egyptians  in  accuracy  and  beauty  of  workman- 
ship and  resembled  them  in  the  use  of  solid  materials.  The 
Greeks  had  within  reach  quarries  of  marble,  the  most  beauti- 
ful material  which  nature  has  provided  for  the  use  of  the 
builder  ;  and  great  fineness  of  surface  and  high  finish  were 
attained.  Some  interesting  examples  of  hollow  walling  occur 
in  the  construction  of  the  Parthenon.  The  wall  was  not  an 
element  of  the  building  on  which  the  Greek  architect  seemed 
to  dwell  with  pleasure  ;  much  of  it  is  almost  invariably  over- 
shadowed by  the  lines  of  columns  which  form  the  main  feat- 
ures of  the  building. 

The  pediment,  or  gable,  of  a  temple  is  a  grand  development 


ANALYSIS  OF  ORKEK   AKCJIITKCTUKK.  45 

of  the  walls  and  perhaps  the  most  striking  of  the  additions 
which  the  Greeks  made  to  the  resources  of  the  architect.  It 
offers  a  fine  field  for  sculpture  and  adds  real  and  apparent 
height  beyond  anything  that  the  Egyptians  ever  attempted 
since  the  days  of  the  Pyramid  builders  ;  and  it  has  remained 
in  constant  use  to  the  present  hour. 

We  do  not  hear  of  towers  being  attached  to  buildings  and, 
although  such  monumental  structures  as  the  Mausoleum  of 
Halicarnassus  approached  the  proportions  of  a  tower,  height 
does  not  seem  to  have  commended  itself  to  the  mind  of  the 
Greek  architect  as  necessary  to  the  buildings  which  he 
designed.  It  was  reserved  for  Roman  and  Christian  art  to 
introduce  this  element  of  architectural  effect  in  all  its  power. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek,  like  the  Persian  architect, 
emphasized  the  base  of  his  building  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
not  only  by  base  moldings,  but  by  planting  the  whole 
structure  on  a  great  range  of  steps  which  formed  an  essential 
part  of  the  composition. 

The,  Roof. 

The  construction  of  the  roofs  of  Greek  temples  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  debate.  It  is  almost  certain  that  they  were  in 
some  way  so  made  as  to  admit  light.  They  were  framed  of 
timber  and  covered  by  tiles,  often,  if  not  always,  of  marble. 
Although  all  traces  of  the  timber  framing  have  disappeared, 
we  can  at  least  know  that  the  pitch  was  not  steep  by  the  slope 
of  the  outline  of  the  pediments,  which  formed,  as  has  already 
been  said,  perhaps  the  chief  glory  of  a  Greek  temple.  The  flat 
stone  roofs  sometimes  used  by  the  Egyptians  and  necessitating 
the  placing  of  columns  or  other  supports  close  together,  seem 
to  have  become  disused,  with  the  exception  that  where  a 
temple  was  surrounded  by  a  range  of  columns  the  space 
between  the  main  wall  and  the  columns  was  so  covered. 

The  vaulted  stone  roofs  of  the  archaic  buildings,  of  which 
the  treasury  of  Atreus  (Figs,  o,  (>)  was  the  type,  do  not  seem  to 
have  prevailed  in  a  later  period  or,  so  far  as  we  know,  to  have 
been  succeeded  by  any  similar  covering  or  vault  of  a  more 
scientific  construction. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  Greek  theaters  were 
not  roofed.  The  Romans  shaded  the  spectators  in  their 


46  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 

theaters  and  amphitheaters  by  means  of  a  velarium,  or  awn- 
ing, but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  even  this  expedient 
was  in  use  in  Greek  theaters. 

The  Openings. 

The  most  important  characteristic  of  the  openings  in  Greek 
buildings  is  that  they  were  flat^topped, — covered  by  a  lintel  of 
stone  or  marble, — and  never  arched.  Doors  and  window  open- 
ings were  often  a  little  narrower  at  the  top  than  the  bottom 
and  were  marked  by  a  band  of  moldings,  known  as  the  archi- 
trave, on  the  face  of  the  wall,  and,  so  to  speak,  framing  in  the 
opening.  There  was  often  also  a  small  cornice  over  each 
(Figs.  39,  40).  Openings  were  seldom  advanced  into  promi- 
nence or  employed  as  features  in  the  exterior  of  a  building  ;  in 
fact,  the  same  effects  which  windows  produce  in  other  styles 
were  in  Greek  buildings  created  by  the  interspaces  between  the 
columns. 

The  Columns. 

These  features,  together  with  the  superstructure  or  entabla- 
ture, which  they  customarily  carried,  were  the  prominent 
parts  of  Greek  architecture,  occupying  as  they  did  the  entire 
height  of  the  building.  The  development  of  the  orders  (which 
we  have  explained  to  be  really  decorative  systems,  each  of 
which  involved  the  use  of  one  sort  of  column,  though  the  term 
is  constantly  understood  as  meaning  merely  the  column  and 
entablature)  is  a  very  interesting  subject  and  illustrates  the 
acuteness  with  which  the  Greeks  selected  from  those  models 
which  were  accessible  to  them,  exactly  \vhat  was  suited  to 
their  purpose  and  the  skill  with  which  they  altered  and 
refined  and  almost  redesigned  everything  which  they  so 
selected. 

During  the  whole  period  when  Greek  art  was  being 
developed,  the  ancient  and  polished  civilization  of  Egypt  con- 
stituted a  most  powerful  and  most  stable  influence,  always 
present,  always,  comparatively  speaking,  within  reach,  and 
always  the  same.  Of  all  the  forms  of  column  and  capital  exist- 
ing in  Egypt,  the  Greeks,  however,  only  selected  that  straight- 
sided,  fluted  type  of  which  the  Beni-Hassan  example  is  the 
best  known,  but  by  no  means  the  only  instance.  We  first 
meet  with  these  fluted  columns  at  Corinth,  of  very  sturdy  pro- 


ANALYSIS  OF  G  KKEK    ARCHITECTURE 


47 


portions  and  having  a  wide,  swelling,  clumsy  molding  under 
the  abacus  by  way  of  a  capital.  By  degrees  the  proportions  of 
the  shaft  grew  more  slender  and  the  profile  of  the  capital  more 
elegant  and  less  bold,  till  the  perfected  proportions  of  the 
Greek  Doric  column  were  attained.  This  column  is  the 
original  to  which  all  columns  with  molded  capitals  that  have 
been  used  in  architecture,  from  the  age  of  Pericles  to  our  own, 
may  be  directly  or  indirectly  referred  ;  while  the  Egyptian 
types  which  the  Greeks  did  not  select — such,  for  example,  as 
the  lotus-columns  at  Karnak — have  never  been  perpetuated. 

A  different  temper  or  taste,  and  partly  a  different  history, 
led  to  the  selection  of  the  West  Asiatic  types  of  column  by  a 


Fir,.  39.— GREEK 
DOORWAY,  SHOW- 
ING COKNICE. 


FIG.  10.— GREEK  DOORWAY,  FRONT  VIEW. 
(FROM  THE  ERECHTHECM.) 


section  of  the  Greek  people  ;  but  great  alterations  in  propor- 
tion, in  the  treatment  of  the  capital,  and  in  the  management 
of  the  molded  base  from  which  the  columns  sprang,  were 
made,  even  in  the  orders  which  occur  in  the  Ionic  buildings  of 
Asia  Minor.  This  was  carried  further  when  the  Ionic  order 
was  made  use  of  in  Athens  herself,  and  as  a  result  the  Attic 
base  and  the  perfected  Ionic  capital  are  to  be  found  at  their 
best  in  the  Erechtheum  example.  The  Ionic  order  and  the 
Corinthian,  which  soon  followed  it,  are  the  parents,  -not,  it  is 
true,  of  all,  but  of  the  greater  part  of  the  columns  with  foliated 
capitals  that  have  been  used  in  all  styles  ami  periods  of  archi- 


48  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 

tecture  since.  It  will  not  be  forgotten  that  rude  types  of  both 
orders  are  found  represented  on  Assyrian  bas-reliefs,  but  still 
the  Corinthian  capital  and  order  must  be  considered  as  the 
natural  and,  so  to  speak,  inevitable  development  of  the  Ionic. 
From  the  Corinthian  capital  an  unbroken  series  of  foliated 
capitals  can  be  traced  down  to  our  own  day  ;  almost  the  only 
new  ornamented  type  ever  devised  since  being  that  which 
takes  its  origin  in  the  Romanesque  block  capital,  known  to  us 
in  England  as  the  early  Norman  cushion  capital ;  this  was 
certainly  the  parent  of  a  distinct  series,  though  even  these  owe 
not  a  little  to  Greek  originals. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  Ionic  base.  It  was  derived  from 
a  very  tall  one  in  use  at  Persepolis  and  we  meet  with  it  first  in 
the  rich  but  clumsy  forms  of  the  bases  in  the  Asia  Minor  ex- 
amples. In  them  we  find  the  height  of  the  feature  as  used 
in  Persia  compressed,  while  great,  and  to  our  eyes  eccentric, 
elaboration  marked  the  moldings ;  these  the  refinement  of 
Attic  taste  afterwards  simplified,  till  the  profile  of  the  well- 
known  Attic  base  was  produced — a  base  which  has  had  as 
wide  and  lasting  an  influence  as  either  of  the  original  forms 
of  capital. 

The  Corinthian  order,  as  has  been  above  remarked,  is  the 
natural  sequel  of  the  Ionic.  Had  Greek  architecture  con- 
tinued till  it  fell  into  decadence,  this  order  would  have 
been  the  badge  of  it.  As  it  was,  the  decadence  of  Greek  art 
was  Roman  art,  and  the  Corinthian  order  was  the  favorite 
order  of  the  Romans  ;  in  fact  all  the  important  examples  of  it 
which  remain  are  Roman  work. 

If  we  remember  how  invariably  use  was  made  of  one  or 
other  of  the  two  great  types  of  the  Greek  order  in  all  the 
buildings  of  the  best  Greek  time,  with  the  addition  toward  its 
close  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  that  these  orders,  a  little 
more  subdivided  and  a  good  deal  modified,  have  formed  the 
substratum  of  Roman  architecture  and  of  that  in  use  during 
the  last  three  centuries  ;  and  if  we  also  bear  in  mind  that 
nearly  all  the  columnar  architecture  of  Early  Christian, 
Byzantine,  Saracenic,  and  Gothic  times,  owes  its  forms  to  the 
same  great  source,  we  may  well  admit  that  the  invention 
and  perfecting  of  the  orders  of  Greek  architecture  has  been — 
with  one  exception — the  most  important  event  in  the  archi- 


ANALYSIS  OF  GUEEK   AKCHITECTUKK.  49 

tectural  history  of  the  world.     That  exception  is,  of  course,  the 
introduction  of  the  Arch. 

Ttic  Ornaments. 

Greek  ornaments  have  exerted  the  same  wide  influence  over 
the  whole  course  of  Western  art  as  Greek  columns  ;  and  in 
their  origin  they  are  equally  interesting  as  specimens  of  Greek 
skill  in  adapting  existing  types  and  of  Greek  invention  where 
no  existing  types  would  serve. 

Few  of  the  moldings  of  Greek  architecture  are  to  be  traced 
to  anterior  styles.  There  is  nothing  like  them  in  Egyptian 
work  and  little  or  nothing  in  Assyrian  ;  and  though  a  sug- 
gestion of  some  of  them  may  no  doubt  be  found  in  Persian 
examples,  we  must  take  them  as  having  been  substantially 
originated  by  Greek  genius,  which  felt  that  they  were  wanted, 
designed  them,  and  brought  them  far  toward  absolute  per- 
fection. They  were  of  the  most  refined  form  and  when 
enriched  were  carved  with  consummate  skill.  They  were 
executed,  it  must  be  remembered,  in  white  marble — a  material 
having  the  finest  surface  and  capable  of  responding  to  the 
most  delicate  variations  in  contour  by  corresponding  changes 
in  shade  or  light  in  a  manner  and  to  a  degree  which  no  other 
material  can  equal.  In  the  Doric,  moldings  were  few  and  al- 
most always  convex  ;  they  became  much  more  numerous  in 
the  later  styles  and  then  included  many  of  concave  profile. 
The  chief  are  the  oi'olo,  which  formed  the  curved  part  of  the 
Doric  capital  and  the  crowning  molding  of  the  Doric  cornice  ; 
the  cyma  ;  the  birds  bc<(k,  employed  in  the  capitals  of  the 
antce ;  the  fillets  under  the  Doric  capital  ;  the  hollows  and 
torus  moldings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  bases. 

The  profiles  of  these  moldings  were  very  rarely  segments  of 
circles,  but  lines  of  varying  curvature,  capable  of  producing 
the  most  delicate  changes  of  light  and  shade  and  contours 
of  the  most  subtle  grace.  Many  of  them  correspond  to  conic 
sections,  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  outlines  were  drawn 
by  hand  and  not  oMained  by  any  mechanical  or  mathematical 
method. 

The  moldings  were  some  of  them  enriched,  to  use  the 
technical  word,  by  having  such  ornaments  cut  into  them 
or  carved  on  them  as,  though  simple  in  form,  lent  themselves 


50 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


well  to  repetition.  Where  more  room  for  ornament  existed, 
and  especially  in  the  capitals  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders,  ornaments  were  freely  and  most  gracefully  carved  and 
very  symmetrically  arranged.  Though  these  were  very  vari- 
ous, yet  most  of  them  can  be  classed  under  three  heads. 
(1.)  FRETS  (Figs.  73  to  77).  These  were  patterns  made  up 
of  squares  or  L-shaped  lines  interlaced  and  made  to  seem  intri- 
cate, though  originally  simple.  Frequently  these  patterns  are 
called  Doric  frets  from  their  having  been  most  used  in  build- 
ings of  the  Doric  order.  (2.)  HONEYSUCKLE  (Figs.  51  and  68 
to  71).  This  ornament,  admirably  conventionalized,  had  been 
used  freely  by  the  Assyrians,  and  the  Greeks  only  adopted 
what  they  found  ready  to  their  hand  when  they  began  to 
use  it ;  but  they  refined  it  at  the  same  time  losing  no  whit 
of  its  vigor  or  effectiveness,  and  the  honeysuckle  has  come  to 
be  known  as  a  typical  Greek  decorative  motif.  (3.)  ACANTHUS 
(Figs.  41,  42).  This  is  a  broad-leaved  plant,  the  foliage  and 
stems  of  which,  treated  in  a  conventional  manner,  though 
with  but  little  departure  from  nature,  were  found  admirably 
adapted  for  floral  decorative  work  and  accordingly  were  made 
use  of  in  the  foliage  of  the  Corinthian  capital  and  in  such 


Fir..  41.— THE  ACAXTHUS  LEAF  AND  STALK. 

ornaments  as,  for  example,  the  great  finiifl  which  forms  the 
summit  of  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  (Fig-  3o). 

The  beauty  of  the  carving  was,  however,  eclipsed  by  that 
highest  of  all  ornaments — sculpture.  In  the  Doric  temples, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  Parthenon,  the  architect  contented 


ANALYSIS  OK  (JKEKK   ARCHITECTURE. 


51 


himself  with  providing  suitable  spaces  for  the  sculptor  to 
occupy  ;  and  thus  the  great  pediments,  the  metopes  (Fig.  43), 
or  square  panels,  and  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  were  occupied 
by  sculpture,  in  which  there  was  no  necessity  for  more  con- 
ventionalism than  the  amount  of  artificial  arrangement 
needed  in  order  fitly  to  occupy  spaces  that  were  respectively 
triangular,  square,  or  continuous.  In  the  later  and  more 
voluptuous  style  of  the  Ionic  temples  we  find  sculpture  made 
into  an  architectural  feature, 
as  in  the  famous  statues, 
known  as  the  caryatids  (page 
35),  which  support  the  small- 
est portico  of  the  Erechtheum, 
and  in  the  enriched  columns 
of  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Eph- 
esus.  Sculpture  had  already 
been  so  employed  in  Egypt 
and  was  often  so  used  in  later 
times ;  but  the  best  opportu- 
nity for  the  display  of  the 
finest  qualities  of  the  sculp- 
tor's art  is  such  a  one  as  the 
pediments,  etc.,  of  the  great 
Doric  temples  afforded. 

There  is  little  room  for 
doubting  that  all  the  Greek  temples  were  richly  decorated  in 
colors,  but  traces  and  indications  are  all  that  remain  ;  these, 
however,  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  a  very  large  amount  of 
color  was  employed  and  that  probably  ornaments  (Figs.  62  to 
77)  were  painted  upon  many  of  those  surfaces  which  were  left 
plain  by  the  mason,  especially  on  the  cornices,  and  that  mosaics 
(Fig.  44)  and  colored  marbles  and  even  gilding  were  freely  used. 
There  is  also  ground  for  believing  that  as  the  use  of  carved 
enrichments  increased  with  the  increasing  adoption  of  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  styles,  less  use  was  made  of  painted 
decorations. 

Architccturul    ( '/ict  r«<-f<  r. 

Observations  which  have  been  made  during  the  course  of 
this  and  the  previous  chapters  will  have  gone  far  to  point  out 


FHJ.  42.— THE  ACANTHUS  LEAF 


52 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


the  characteristics  of  Greek  art.  An  archaic  and  almost  for- 
bidding severity,  with  heavy  proportions  and  more  strength 
than  grace,  marks  the  earliest  Greek  buildings  of  which  we 
have  any  fragments  remaining.  Dignity,  sobriety,  refinement, 
and  beauty  are  the  qualities  of  the  works  of  the  best  period. 
The  latest  buildings  were  more  rich,  more  ornate,  and  more 
slender  in  their  proportions,  and  to  a  certain  extent  less  severe. 
Most  carefully  studied  proportions  prevailed  and  were 


FIG.  43.— METOPE  FROM  THE  PARTHENON.    CONFLICT  BETWEEN  A 
CENTAUK  AND  ONE  OF  THE  LAPITHJE. 

wrought  out  to  a  pitch  of  completeness  and  refinement  which 
is  truly  astounding.  Symmetry  was  the  all  but  invariable  law 
of  composition.  Yet  in  certain  respects — as,  for  example,  the 
spacing  and  position  of  the  columns — a  degree  of  freedom  was 
enjoyed  which  Roman  architecture  did  not  possess.  Repetition 
ruled  to  the  almost  entire  suppression  of  variety.  Disclosure 
of  the  arrangement  and  construction  of  the  building  was 
almost  complete  and  hardly  a  trace  of  concealment  can  be 
detected.  Simplicity  reigns  in  the  earliest  examples,  the 


ANALYSIS  OK  GUKKK   ARCHITECTURE. 


53 


elaboration  of  even  the  most  ornamental  is  very  chaste  and 
graceful,  and  the  whole  effect  of  Greek  architecture  is  one  of 
harmony,  unity,  and  refined  power. 

A  general  principle  seldom  pointed  out  which  governs  the 
application  of  enrichments  to  moldings  in  Greek  architecture 
may  be  cited  as  a  good  instance  of  the  subtle  yet  admirable 
concord  which  existed  between  the  different  features  ;  it  is  as 


FIG.  44.— MOSAIC  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS,  OL.YMPIA. 

follows  :  T7tc  outline  of  each  enrichment  in  relief  was  ordinarily 
described  by  the  name  line  as  the  profile  of  the  molding  to  ichieh 
it  was  applied.  The  egg  enrichment  (Fig.  47)  on  the  ovolo,  the 
water-leaf  on  the  c>/ma  rererxa  (Figs.  48,  54),  the  honeysuckle 
on  the  cyma  recta  (Fig.  f>l),  and  the  aiiittoche  (Fig.  57)  on  the 
turm,  are  examples  of  the  application  of  this  rule— one  which 
obviously  tends  to  produce  harmony. 


54 


(JREEK  ARCHITECTUHK   AND  SCULPTURE. 


P"IG.  4").— SECTION  OF  THE  POKTICO  OF  THE  ERECHTHET'M. 


FIG.  46.— PLAN  OF  THE  PORTICO— LOOK i  NO  rr. 


EXAMPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT 

IN  THK  NORTHERN  PORTICO  OF  THE  KKECHTHEITM— SHOWING  THE 
ORNAMENTATION  OF  THE  CEIT.INO. 


ANALYSIS  OF  OKKKK   ARCHITECTURE. 


FIQ.  47.— EGG  AND  DART. 


Fir,.  48.— LEAF  AND  DART. 


FIG.  49 .--HONEYSUCKLE. 


FIG.  50.— CAPITAL  OF  ANT.*:  FROM  THE 


FlC.  51.— HONEYSUCKLK. 
KXA.MPLES  OF  (iKFFK  ORNAMENT  IN   KEI.IEF. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


FIG.  52.— ACANTHUS. 


FIG.  53.— ACANTHUS. 


FIG.  54.— LEAF  AND  TONGUK. 


FIG.  55.— LEAF  AND  TONGUE. 


FIG.  50.— OAKLAND. 


FIG.  57.— GTJTLLOCHE. 


FIG.  60.— TORUS  MOLDING.  FIG.  01.— TORUS  MOLDING. 

EXAMPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT  IN  RELIEF. 


ANALYSIS  OF  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. 


57 


FIG*.  62,— HONEYSUCKLE. 


FIG.  61.— HONEYSUCKLE. 


FIG.  65. 


FIGS.  (O,  flo.— FACIAS  WITH  BANDS  OF  FOI,IAGK. 


FIG.  06.— LEAF  AND  DART. 


FIG.  67.— EGG  AND  DART. 
EXAMPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT  IN  COLOR. 


58 


GHEEK  AKCHITECTUKE  AXD  SCULPTURE. 


FIG. 


FIG.  69. 


***ii>"     ^*'^     *Sl 


Q51 


FIG.  72.— GUIL- 

LOCHE. 

F'IGS.  68  TO  70.— EXAMPLP:S  OF  THE  HONEYSUCKLE. 

FIG.  71.— COMBINATION  ov  THE  FKKT,  THE  EGG  AND  DAKT,  THE 
BEAD  AND  FII.I-KT,  AND  THE  HONEYSUCKLE. 


FIG.  75. 


FIG.  76.  FIG.  77. 

P^IGS.  7:>  TO  77.-  EXAMPLES  OF  THE  FRET. 

EXAMPLE*  OF  GREEK  OKN'AMENT  IN  COLOR. 


BAS-RELIEF  IN  MARBLE  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  APOLLO  AT  PHIGALIA. 
CONTEST  OF  CENTAURS  AND 

In  the  British  Museum. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

SCULPTURE  IN  GENERAL. 

THE  word  "sculpture,"  derived  from  the  Latin  sculpo,  I 
carve,  is  applicable  to  all  work  cut  out  in  a  solid  material 
in  imitation  of  natural  objects.    Thus  carvings  in  wood, 
ivory,  stone,  marble,  metal,  and  those  works  formed  in  a  softer 
material,  not  requiring  carving,  such  as  wax  and  clay,  all  come 
under  the  general  denomination  of  sculpture. 

But  sculpture,  as  we  are  about  to  consider  it,  is  to  be  distin- 
guished by  the  term  "  statuary,"  from  all  carved  work  belong- 
ing to  ornamental  art,  and  from  those  beautiful  incised  gems 
and  cameos  which  form  the  class  of  glyptics,  a  word  derived 
from  the  Greek  glypho,  I  carve.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  sculptor  docs  not  generally  carve  his  work 
directly  out  of  the  marble;  he  first  makes  his  statue  or  bas- 
relief  in  clay  or  sometimes  in  wax.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
say  that  the  most  primitive  sculptor  naturally  took  clay  for  his 
work,  as  the  potter  did  for  his  "  wheel."  This  method  enabled 
him  to  "sketch  in  the  clay"  and  to  perfect  his  work  in  this  obedi- 
ent material.  Michelangelo  and  such  great  masters  could 
dispense  with  this  and  when  they  chose  could  carve  at  once 


60  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 

the  statue  from  the  block.  The  ancient  Egyptian  sculptors, 
and  after  them  the  Assyrians,  carved  their  gigantic  figures 
from  the  living  rock.  The  rock-cut  temples  of  India  show 
similar  work. 

Carving  is,  however,  of  secondary  consideration — with  the 
exception  of  the  special  work  of  great  masters  just  referred 
to — and  it  is  the  modeling  in  the  clay  which  is  the  primary 
work.  Sculpture  is  therefore  properly  styled  "plastic  art," 
from plasso,  I  fashion  or  mold.  The  "  model,"  as  it  is  termed 
technically,  is  afterwards  to  be  "  molded  "  by  the  exact  appli- 
cation of  liquid  plaster  of  Paris  in  a  proper  manner.  By 
means  of  the  mold  thus  formed,  a  cast  of  the  original  clay 
statue  or  bas-relief  is  taken  by  a  similar  use  of  the  liquid 
plaster.  This  liquid  plaster  has  the  property  of  solidifying,  or 
"  setting,"  as  it  is  technically  called,  by  a  kind  of  crystalliza- 
tion, and  it  thus  takes  any  form  to  which  it  is  applied.  The 
clay  model,  therefore,  is  like  the  original  drawing  of  a  painter, 
a  master  work.  It  is  something  more  ;  it  is  the  result  of  a  pre- 
vious step,  for  the  sculptor  has  probably  made  a  drawing  before 
taking  the  clay  in  hand.  The  sculptor,  therefore,  is  less  a 
carver  than  a  designer,  draughtsman,  and  modeler.  This 
being  so,  he  invented  a  method  of  mechanical  measurement  by 
which  most  of  the  carving  could  be  done  by  skilled  labor. 
That  this  was  an  ancient  practice  is  shown  by  an  example  in 
the  Museum  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome  of  an  unfinished 
statue  of  a  captive,  which  has  been  left  with  the  "points  "  on 
the  surface  ;  so  placed  by  the  master  as  a  guide  for  the  workman. 

In  the  process  of  "pointing,"  the  model  and  the  block  of 
marble  are  each  fixed  on  a  base  called  a  scale-stone,  to  which  a 
standard  vertical  rod  can  be  attached  at  corresponding  centers, 
having  at  its  upper  end  a  sliding  needle  so  adapted  by  a 
movable  joint  as  to  be  set  at  any  angle  and  fastened  by  a  screw 
when  so  set.  The  master  sculptor  having  marked  the  govern- 
ing points  with  a  pencil  on  the  model,  the  instrument  is 
applied  to  these  and  the  measure  taken.  The  standard  being 
then  transferred  to  the  block-base,  the  "pointer,"  guided  by 
this  measure,  cuts  away  the  marble,  taking  care  to  leave  it 
rather  larger  than  the  model,  so  that  the  general  proportions 
are  kept,  and  the  more  important  work  is  then  left  for  the 
master  hand. 


SCULPTURE  IN  GENERAL.  01 

Hard  Stones.  Greek  and  Roman  sculptors  made  many 
statues  and  bas-reliefs  in  hard  stones.  There  are  fine  examples 
in  the  Vatican  collection,  but,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  nature  of  the  material,  none  that  equal  in  beauty  of  form 
and  expression  the  works  in  marble  and  bronze.  The  Vatican 
also  contains  the  most  remarkable  collection  of  sculpture  of 
this  kind  in  existence,  in  the  groups  of  animals,  all  in  the 
most  spirited  actions  of  sport  or  combat,  placed  in  what  is 
called  "the  Hall  of  the  Animals."  The  extremely  difficult 
nature  of  such  work  may  be  understood  when  it  is  seen  that 
the  ordinary  method  of  the  chisel  and  mallet  in  the  most 
skillful  hands  would  be  quite  unavailing  in  this  hard  material 
and  upon  so  small  a  scale.  The  treadle-wheel,  the  drill,  and 
ihff  file  are  brought  to  aid  the  chisel,  and  even  these  re- 
quire the  use  of  emery  upon  the  wheel  of  the  lapidary,  in  the 
method  by  which  the  hardest  gems  are  cut. 

Terra  Cotta.  Clay,  modeled  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  hard- 
ened by  the  fire,  was  naturally  one  of  the  early  forms  in  which 
sculpture  was  developed.  At  once  ready  to  hand  and  easily 
modeled,  it  was  adopted  for  the  same  reasons  that  made  clay 
convenient  for  the  ordinary  vessels  of  everyday  use.  So  we 
find  countless  numbers  of  ancient  figures  of  deities,  animals, 
grotesque  monsters,  in  baked  or  simply  sun-dried  clay,  all 
more  or  less  barbaric  and  archaic  in  style,  whether  found 
in  Mexico  or  Cyprus,  in  Egypt  or  Assyria,  in  Etruria  or  the 
Troad.  These  have  escaped  destruction  chiefly  on  account 
of  their  not  being  of  any  value,  as  bronze  and  marble  were, 
and  partly  from  their  great  durability  in  resisting  decay. 

Terra  cotta  was  obviously  chosen  by  the  sculptors  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  as  it  is  by  modern  artists,  with  the  view  of  preserv- 
ing the  exact  spirit  and  freedom  of  the  original,  whether  as  a 
sketch  or  as  a  finished  work.  Although  some  shrinking  under 
the  action  of  the  fire  has  to  be  allowed  for,  and  occasionally  an 
accidental  deformity  may  occur  from  this  cause,  yet  what  is 
well-baked  is  certain  to  possess  the  excellence  of  the  \vork  in 
the  fresh  clay,  as  it  escapes  the  chances  of  overfinish  and  the 
loss  of  truth  and  animation,  which  too  often  befall  bron/.e  and 
marble.  As  it  left  the  hand  of  the  master  the  fire  fixed  it, 
converting  the  soft  clay  into  a  material  as  hard  as  marble  and 
more  capable  of  resisting  damp  and  heat. 


62 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


Ivory.  Another  ancient  form  of  sculpture  to  be  noticed, 
though  no  examples  of  it  remain,  is  very  important  as  it  is 
known  to  have  been  that  employed  by  the  greatest  master  of 
the  art — Phidias,  for  his  grand  colossal  statues  of  Zeus  and 
Athene  in  the  temples  of  those  gods.  This  is  called  Chrysele- 
phantine, on  account  of  the  combined  use  of  gold  (chrysos}  and 
ivory  (elephas),  the  nude  parts  of  the  figure  being  of  ivory, 
with  color  applied  to  the  flesh  and  features,  and  the  drapery  of 
gold.  The  statue  was  substantially  but  roughly  made  in 
marble  with  wood  perhaps  upon  it ;  the  ivory  being  laid  on  in 


FIGS.  78,  79,  80.— SHOWING  THE  SUPPOSED  METHOD  OF  WORKING  IVORY 
IX  PIECES  LAID  ON. 

thick  pieces  (Figs.  78,  79,  80).  Much  interesting  research  has 
been  given  to  this  form  of  sculpture,  by  De  Quincy  especially, 
but  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  details  which  are  so  largely 
conjectural. 

Wood.  Statues  of  wood  of  various  kinds  were  made  by  the 
most  ancient  sculptors  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Greece. 

The  Greeks  called  their  wood  statues  zoana,  from  zeo,  I 
polish  or  carve.  The  statue  of  a  god  was  called  agalma  kion, 
(an  image  column) — a  column  is  taken  to  mean  also  a  statue 
(Plutarch).  Castor  and  Pollux  were  represented  by  the  Lace- 
daemonians simply  as  two  pieces  of  wood  joined  by  a  ring, 
hence  the  sign  n  for  the  twins  in  the  Zodiac.  The  small 
figures  of  men  and  animals,  called  by  the  Greeks  Dccdalidcs  as 
supposed  to  be  made  by  Dtedalus  (a  name  derived  from 
daidallo,  I  work  skillfully)  and  his  school  of  artificers,  were 
carved  in  wood. 


SCULPTURE  IN   GENERAL.  63 

Bronze.  This  was  one  of  the  most  important  forms  of  an- 
cient statuary.  Unfortunately  we  have  to  rely  almost  entirely 
upon  ancient  writers  for  any  descriptions  of  the  great  works 
of  the  Greek  sculptors  in  bronze  and  upon  those  copies  of  them 
in  marble  which  tradition  tells  us  are  such.  The  original 
bronze  works  have  long  since  perished,  some  by  fire  and  others 
by  the  hand  of  the  spoiler. 

The  ancient  bronze  workers  sought  to  obtain  effects  of  color. 
Pliny  states  that  Aristonidas  made  a  statue  of  "Athamas" 
that  showed  the  blush  of  shame  in  the  face,  by  the  rusting 
of  the  iron  mixed  with  the  bronze.  Plutarch  mentions  a 
"Jocasta  dying,"  the  face  of  which  was  pale,  the  sculptor 
Silanion  having  mixed  silver  with  the  bronze.  A  representa- 
tion of  the  "Battle  of  Alexander  and  Porus"  was  like  a  pic- 
ture, from  the  different  colors  of  the  metal  employed.  Possibly 
these  effects  were  obtained  by  inlaying  with  metals  of  differ- 
ent colors. 

The  primitive  bronze  workers  began  by  hammering  solid 
metal  into  shapes,  before  they  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of 
casting.  The  "toreutic"  art,  although  not  definitely  known 
at  present,  was  probably  that  of  hammering,  punching,  and 
chiseling  plates  of  metal,  either  separately  or  with  a  view 
to  fixing  them  upon  stone  or  wood.  Much  ancient  work  was 
of  this  kind,  as  the  famous  shield  of  Achilles,  described  by 
Homer ;  the  chest  of  Cypselus,  made  about  700  B.  ('.  ;  and  the 
ornamental  work  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  Greek 
word  for  hammer,  sphyra,  gave  the  name  of  sfthyrclaton  to 
work  of  this  kind. 

The  casting  of  metal  in  molds  of  a  very  simple  kind  for  small 
ornaments  like  rings,  the  pendants  of  necklaces,  buttons,  and 
bosses,  must  have  followed  upon  the  discovery  that  metals 
could  be  melted  in  the  fire.  There  are  many  allusions  to  this 
in  the  Bible  (Job  xxviii.  1,  2),  and  to  the  refiner  and  purifier  of 
"  gold  seven  times  purified." 

As  the  sculptor  improved  in  his  art  of  modeling  he  would  be 
able  to  make  better  molds.  He  would  soon  observe  that  his 
solid  statue  was  not  only  a  costly  work  but  a  very  heavy  one. 
He  would  find  that  solid  arms  broke  off  at  the  trunk  from 
mere  weight  or  t but  his  whole  figure  hud  collapsed  from  the 
same  simple  cause.  Thus  he  would  be  led  to  seek  some  means 


64 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


of  overcoming  these  defects  in  his  cast  statues,  which,  though 
an  improvement  upon  his  hammered  ones  in  their  correctness 
of  form,  were  not  so  durable.  This  was  accomplished  by  the 
discovery  of  a  contrivance  for  casting  metal  in  a  hollow  form. 
It  was  done  very  much  as  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

The  Various  Forms  Adopted  in  Sculpture. 

Having  described  the  various  materials  and  methods  em- 
ployed in  sculptural  art,  we  are  in  a  condition  to  classify  the 
different  forms  adopted,  and  arrange  them  under  the  proper 
terms. 

All  sculpture  is  measurable  ;  and  it  has  three  dimensions — 
height,  width,  and  depth.  Sculpture  in  "the  round,"  I.  e. 
statuary •  proper,  has  also  circumference,  or  girth,  that  may  be 
measured. 

Sculpture  in  Relief. 

Bas-relief,  or  basso-relievo,  is  the  term  used  when  the 
work  projects  from  the  general  plain  surface,  or  ground,  the 


FIG.  81.— AI/TO-REI.TKVO.    ONE  OF  THE  METOPES  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 


SCULPTURE   IX   GENERAL.  Go 

forms  being  rounded  as  in  nature.  If  the  work  is  very  little 
raised,  the  forms  being  not  so  projecting  as  in  nature,  it  is 
called  flat-relief  or  stiacciato. 

If  more  raised,  but  not  free  from  the  ground  in  any  part,  it  is 
described  as  half-relief,  or  mezzo-relievo,  as  in  the  Parthenon 
and  other  friezes. 

If  the  relief  is  still  higher  it  becomes  fall-relief,  or  alto- 
relievo,  in  which  parts  of  the  figures  are  entirely  free  from 
the  ground  of  the  slab ;  as  in  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon 
(Fig.  81). 

Sunk-relief,  or  cavo-rclievo — in  which  the  work  is  re- 
cessed within  an  outline  but  still  raised  in  flat  relief  not  pro- 
jecting above  the  surface  of  the  slab  as  seen  in  the  ancient 
Egyptian  carvings. 

The  beauty  and  character  of  bas-relief  depend  much  upon 
the  representation  of  outline.  The  projection  is  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distinctness  and  continuity  of  line  enforced  by 
this  method,  so  conspicuously  seen,  in  its  most  masterly  style, 
in  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon. 

Statuary. 

Statuary  proper,  which  is  so  called  from  the  Latin  stare, 
to  stand,  is  sculpture  in  the  round.  A  statue  is  therefore  seen 
on  every  side.  Statues  are — 1.  Standing.  2.  Seated.  3.  Re- 
cumbent. 4.  Equestrian.  They  are  classed  into  five  forms  as 
to  size  : 

1.     Colossal — above  the  heroic  standard. 

±     Heroic — above  six  feet,  but  under  the  colossal. 

3.  Life  Size, 

4.  Small  Life  Size. 

5.  Statuettes — half  the  size  of  life,  and  smaller. 

The  ancient  sculptors  represented  with  great  beauty  the 
various  mythological  creatures  described  in  their  fables  ;  some 
of  which  are  of  the  human  form  varied— as  the  Amazon,  the 
Faun,  the  Syren,  the  Nereid,  the  Cyclops,  the  Janus,  or 
bifrons  (double-faced),  and  the  Hermaphrodite,  uniting  the 
characteristics  of  Hermes  and  Aphrodite.  In  other  instances 
they  invented  the  combinations  of  the  human  with  the  brute 
form  of  fabulous  creatures  described  in  ancient  mythology. 
These  are :  (a)  Sphin.r — lion  with  head  of  man  or  woman  ; 


66  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AXD  SCULPTURE. 

(6)  man  with  eagle  or  hawk  head  ;  (c)  Minotaur — man  with 
head  or  body  of  the  bull ;  (d)  Centaur — man  with  part  of 
trunk  and  limbs  of  the  horse ;  (e)  Satyi — man  with  hind 
quarters  of  a  goat;  (/)  Triton — man  with  fish-tail;  (g)  The 
Giants — men  with  serpents  for  legs  ;  (h)  Harpy — woman  and 
bird.  Other  strange  creatures  were  of  brutes  only,  as  the 
Hippocamp — horse  and  fish,  with  fins  at  the  hoofs ;  the 
Chimcera,  Griffin,  Dragon,  Dog  Cerberus,  with  many  heads,  etc. 
Different  Marbles  Used  by  Greek  Sculptors. 

Many  varieties  of  fine  marbles  were  plentiful  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor  ;  they  take  names  from  the  mountains  where  they 
were  quarried. 

Soft  Marbles — sedimentary  rocks  of  limestone. 

Pentelic  marble,  from  Mount  Pentelicus  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Athens,  is  found  white,  with  a  fine  fracture,  brilliant  and 
sparkling,  obtaining  with  exposure,  after  having  received  the 
surface  polish  from  the  hand  of  the  sculptor,  a  beautiful  warm 
tone  comparable  to  ivory.  This  effect  is  seen  in  the  Parthenon 
and  other  temples  in  Athena  built  of  this  marble,  which  have 
an  extraordinary  richness  in  their  golden  tint,  especially  under 
bright  sunlight  and  seen  against  a  blue  sky.  The  yellow  color 
is  said  to  be  caused  by  oxidation  of  some  salt  of  iron  contained 
in  the  marble.  The  statues  in  Athens  and  many  others  now 
in  various  museums  are  also  of  the  same  marble. 

Parian  is  the  marble  from  the  island  of  Paros.  The  marble 
usually  called  Parian  has  a  coarse,  sparkling  grain,  which, 
however,  takes  a  high  finish  ;  but  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  true  Parian  marble  was  of  extremely  fine  grain,  easy 
to  work,  and  of  a  creamy  white. 

Phigalian — a  gray  marble,  seen  in  the  bas-reliefs  from 
Phigalia. 

^Eginetan — a  grayish  marble,  seen  in  the  statues  of  the  pedi- 
ment of  the  Temple  of  Athene,  now  in  the  museum  of  Munich. 

Black  marble — found  at  Cape  Tenaros. 
Verde  antico — found  at  Taygetos. 


FIG.  82.— THE  GATE  OF  LIONS  AT  MYCENJE. 
10  feet  high  and  15  feet  wide ;  of  greenish  limestone. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ARCHAIC    GREEK   SCULPTURE. 

THE  origin  of  the    arts    of  Greece    1ms    been    generally 
ascribed  by  her  own  early    records   and  traditions  to 
Egyptian  influences.     The  evidence  derived  from  the 
style  of  art  followed  at  this  early  period  tends  to  confirm  tra- 
dition.   The  earliest  coins  of  Greek  work  with  the  head  of 
Athene  show  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  heads  of  Isis. 

There  are  many  examples  of  vases,   painted  with   figures 
representing  in  the  most  primitive  forms  the  oldest  mytholog- 


68  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 

ical  heroes  and  deities,  which  closely  resemble  the  Egyptian 
cavi  relievi  and  paintings  ;  they  are  in  profile  with  the  eye  full 
and  the  feet  turned  both  in  the  same  direction  or,  when  the 
figure  is  full-face  as  in  some  bas-reliefs,  the  feet  are  in  the 
impossible  position  of  profile  and  both  on  the  same  plane.  In 
painting,  the  absence  of  all  attempt  to  represent  shadow,  either 
in  the  forms  or  in  the  cast  shadow,  and  the  use  of  a  strong 
black  outline,  sometimes  incised  and  having  the  color  filled  in 
as  a  flat  tint,  are  other  points  of  affinity  between  the  early 
Greek  work  and  the  Egyptian. 

But  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind,  in  a  historical  considera- 
tion of  the  question,  that  it  was  in  Ionia  that  the  arts  were 
promoted  long  before  Athens  had  begun  to  show  any  advance  ; 
and  all  the  names,  handed  down  by  the  traditions  taken  up  by 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Pausanias,  Pliny,  and  the  late  Greek  writers, 
are  those  of  sculptors  working  in  the  islands  near  the  Asiatic 
shore  and  in  the  towns  upon  the  mainland.  Thus  in  the 


FIG.  83.— EARLY  COIN  OF  ATHENS,  FIG.  81.— COIN  OK  ATHENS  AFTER 

HEAD  OF  ATHENE;  THE  EVE  THE  TIME  OF  PHIDIAS.    WITH 
FULL,  AS  IN  EGYPTIAN  THE  HELMET  INTRODUCED 

RELIEFS.  BY  PHIDIAS. 

objects  found  by  Cesnola  in  Cyprus,  consisting  of  statues  and 
other  sculptures,  incised  gems,  and  metal  work  of  the 
hammered-out  or  repousse  kind,  the  resemblance  to  the  art  of 
Assyria  is  remarkable. 

But  besides  the  workmanship  there  is  more  decisive  evidence 
in  the  choice  and  treatment  of  the  subjects  ;  these  tend  to  con- 
firm the  same  view. 

The  bas-reliefs  upon  the  Harpy  tomb  (Fig.  80),  as  it  is  called, 
which  was  discovered  in  1838  by  Sir  C.  Fellows,  were  at  first 
supposed  by  Gibson  the  great  sculptor  and  student  of  classic 


ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


GO 


FIG.  85.— BAS-RELIEF  ON  THE  HAKPY  TOMB.    THE  FIGUKES  IN  PROFILE, 

AND  WITH  THE  PRIMITIVE  DRAPERIES. 

In  the  British  Museum. 

sculpture,  to  have  for  their  subject  the  Harpies  flying  away 
with  the  daughters  of  King  Pandarus,  as  related  by  Homer 
("Odys."  lib.  xx.).  Pandarus  was  king  of  Lycia.  But  archae- 
ologists are  not  agreed  upon  the  point ;  more  recent  opinions 
conjecture  that  the  subject  is  simply  funereal,  and  the  Harpies 
emblematic  of  untimely  death  are  bearing  off  the  souls  of 
mortals.  The  Harpy  figures  are  more  especially  Assyrian  in 
the  character  of  the  work.  The  date  of  these  Lycian  sculp- 
tures is  not  later  than  500  B.  C.  In  the  other  reliefs  which  are 
now  on  the  walls  of  the  New  Lycian  room,  in  the  British 
Museum,  there  are  sieges,  chariots,  processions,  and  many 
figures  in  the  energetic  action  so  remarkable  in,  the  Nineveh 
sculptures.  The  two  lions  sculptured  in  the  round  resemble 
the  Assyrian  lions  in  style.  All  this  is  told  in  the  same 
graphic  manner  as  on  the  Nineveh  slabs,  and  it  is  most  inter- 
esting to  compare  these  two  series  of  sculptures  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  will  be  observed  that  most  of  the  figures  are  in 
profile  and  that  the  eyes  are  nevertheless  shown  in  full ;  the 
same  peculiar  smile  prevails  in  all,  which  is  a  distinguishing 
feature  in  Etruscan  works  and  in  the  JEirinetan  and  otlier 


70  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE   AXD   SCULPTURE. 

sculptures  we  shall  have  to  notice.  This  is  also  seen  in  the 
coins  of  the  time  and  is  a  feature  which  has,  of  course,  some 
similarity  to  the  Egyptian,  but  not  less  to  the  Assyrian  style. 
The  long,  straight  folds  and  zigzag  edges  of  the  draperies  are 
also  archaic  forms  which  belong  to  these  Lycian.  sculptures,  as 
well  as  the  sculptures  found  at  Selinus  in  Sicily ;  and  to  a 
draped  figure  found  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  in  the  ruins  of 
temples  and  buildings  which  were  erected  there  before  the 
Parthenon.  These  were  destroyed  by  the  Persians  in  the  early 
battles  of  the  Athenians  against  their  old  enemy.  Their  date 


FIG.  86.— BAS-KELIEFS  ON  THE  HARPY  TOMB. 
In  the  Jiritish  Museum. 

is  considered  to  be  about  560 — 190  B.  C.,  when  Pisistratus  was 
ruler  at  Athens  and  later. 

The  archaic  "Artemis"  of  the  Naples  Museum  in  marble 
(Fig.  87)  shows  the  zigzag  form  of  drapery,  which  is  also  seen 
on  a  similar  figure  in  the  Dresden  collection.  It  has  been  said 
these  archaic  statues  are  Egyptian  in  style,  yet  it  is  difficult  to 
see  this  character  in  them  beyond  the  general  rigidity  and  the 
calm  smiling  look  of  the  features.  But  in  this  respect  they  are 
equally  like  the  Assyrian,  and  for  the  simple  reason  that  to 
give  any  expression  to  the  countenance  requires  a  higher 
exercise  of  art  and  this  these  sculptors  w^ere  not  sufficiently 
skilled  to  do.  The  Egyptians  could  perhaps  have  done  it,  but 


FIG.  87.— ARTEMIS,  FOUND  AT  POMPEII. 

Nlimving  the  archaic  style  of  draper}/ folds. 

In  the  Naples  Museum. 


72  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 

it  was  not  in  keeping  with  their  intention  and  the  genius  of 
their  art.  The  Assyrians  were  very  rough  expressionists, 
rather  vulgar  and  puerile  in  their  imitative  sculpture,  but,  as 
we  have  observed,  inventive,  and  with  more  feeling  for  design 
than  the  Egyptians  in  their  ornament.  Seeking  for  other 
signs  of  Egyptian  teaching  in  early  Greek  sculpture,  it  is 
remarkable  that  not  a  single  example  can  be  pointed  out  of 
cavo-relievo  (page  65),  such  as  the  Egyptians  adopted  so  univer- 
sally. Though  effective,  durable  beyond  all  other  forms,  and 
capable  of  carrying  color,  yet  it  never  was  employed  by  Greek 
carvers  or  architects  early  or  late ;  nor,  as  has  been  pointed 
out,  was  the  cavo-relievo  ever  employed  in  the  Assyrian  reliefs. 

Turning  next  to  the  statues — the  seated  and  standing  figures 
carved  universally  with  some  supporting  part  of  the  work  at 
the  back  and  not  in  the  round — the  examples  of  similar  statues 
in  Greece  are  extremely  rare.  There  are  as  yet  only  the  head- 
less seated  Athene  in  the  Museum  at  Athens,  and  ten  draped, 
seated  statues  found  in  18.38,  by  Mr.  Newton,  at  Miletus  on  the 
Asiatic  shore  of  the  ^Egean,  all  headless  but  one. 

It  may  be  observed  that  among  the  small  objects  found  in 
Greece  there  are  none  of  those  miniature  figures  of  deities 
precisely  like  the  large  Egyptian  statues  which  abound  in 
Egypt.  To  these  some  importance  must  have  been  attached, 
since  they  are  found  in  every  mummy  case,  often  rolled  up 
with  the  cerecloths,  and  probably  intended  as  amulets  or  pro- 
tecting charms. 

From  all  that  we  learn  of  the  Egyptians,  through  such 
exhaustive  researches  as  those  of  Sir  G.  Wilkinson,  it  would 
seem  that  the  sculptors  and  the  carvers  of  hieroglyphics  were  a 
distinct  class  or  caste,  descending  from  father  to  son,  and 
always  under  the  close  control  of  the  priestly  rule.  It  is  not 
likely  that  they  would  ever  become  colonists  and  travel  away 
from  their  city.  Those  who  did  wander  off  with  Cecrops  and 
Cadmus  were  not  any  of  them  sculptors  or  we  should  have 
found  some  trace  of  their  work.  The  Egyptians  were  a  re- 
ligious, not  a  commercial,  people,  and  not  colonizers.  They 
devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  ease  and  luxurious  repose  ;  they 
were  dreamers  over  the  abstract  and  only  entered  into  wars  to 
defend  themselves  and  their  territory. 

The  PhuMiicians  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  teachers;  but 


FIG.  88.— COLOSSAL,  34  INCHES  HIGH. 


Km.  89.-STONE,  9>2        FIG.  90.— STONK,  1U 

1NTHKS  HIGH.  INCHES  HIGH. 


FIG.  91.— STONK,  It 
INCHKS  mr;n. 


HEADS  FOUND  BY  OFKNOLA  IN  THE  TEMPLE  OF  GOLOOI,  CYPRUS' 


74  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 

they  never  developed  any  art  in  the  direction  either  of  beauty 
of  form  or  energy  of  expression.  As  the  earliest  and  most 
expert  metal  workers,  they  taught  their  neighbors  and  carried 
the  materials  both  along  the  coast  and  to  the  islands  of  the 
JEgean.  In  Cyprus  abundant  examples  have  been  found  in 
the  discoveries  of  General  Cesnola  of  Phoenician  and  Grseco- 
Phreiiician  work. 

Let  us  endeavor  to  trace  in  other  monuments  that  remain, 
the  influence  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  art,  as  shown  in  the 
work  of  the  Pelasgi  and  Etrusci.  Those  which  are  simply 
barbaric,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  have  no  value 
for  sculptural  art  in  helping  us  to  identify  any  foreign  influ- 
ence, since  they  belong  to  110  individual  style.  Neither  is 
much  to  be  learned  from  sepulchral  structures  such  as  the 
tumuli  common  to  the  plains  of  Troy  and  the  far  west  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  the  far  east  of  India ;  nor  from  the  under- 
ground structures  known  as  treasuries.  Sculptural  art  did  not 
take  its  great  spring  in  advance  from  any  of  these,  as  no 
statues  of  any  value  in  art  have  ever  been  found  in  them. 

At  Mycense,  once,  perhaps  in  the  days  of  Homer  (850 — 800  ? 
B.  C.),  the  most  important  city  of  Greece,  there  are  sculptural 
works  in  the  remains  of  two  lions  over  the  entrance  gate  (Fig. 
82),  which  are  examples  of  Pelasgic  art.  The  height  of  these 
is  about  10  feet  and  the  width  15  feet.  The  stone  is  a  greenish 
limestone.  The  holes  show  where  the  metal  pins  held  the 
heads,  long  since  decayed.  Fragments  as  they  are,  they  show 
an  Assyrian  rather  than  an  Egyptian  influence  in  the  strong 
marking  of  the  muscles  and  joints,  softened  though  it  is  by 
decay,  and  in  the  erect  attitude,  which  denotes  action  such 
as  is  not  seen  in  Egyptian  art  of  this  kind.  Whether  it  is 
a  column  they  support  or  an  altar  is  doubtful ;  but  the  four 
round  projections  above  the  capital  resemble  the  wood  struc- 
ture of  the  Lycian  tombs.  The  peculiar  tail  of  the  lions,  with 
the  knob  at  the  tip,  is  exactly  such  as  we  see  in  the  Assyrian 
lions.  These  lions  should  be  compared  also  with  the  wounded 
lion  in  the  British  Museum,  Nineveh  collection  (Fig.  94).  Of 
this  "gate  of  the  lions,"  which  has  long  been  known  as  a 
most  ancient  work  of  early  Greek  sculpture,  it  must  be  noticed 
that  it  is  not  in  the  round  but  only  in  high  relief.  And 
this  is  the  case  with  all  the  earliest  works,  just  as  it  is 


ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE. 


75 


with  the  Assyrian  sculptures.  They  tend  to  show  therefore 
that  the  Greek  sculptor  had  not  yet  learned  to  model  and  carve 
in  the  round  in  marble  and  stone. 

There  are  early  records  of  statuary  being  made  in  marble. 
Pliny  says  the  first  of  all  distinguished  for  marble  carving 
were  Dipoenus  and  Scyllis,  who  worked  together  at  Sicyon. 
They  were  born  in.  the  island  of  Crete  during  the  existence 
of  the  empire  of  the  Medes,  before  Cyrus  began  his  reign 
in  Persia,  about  the  fiftieth  Olympiad  (about  580  B.  C.).  They 

gill 

LJ  I    »L 


FIG.  92.— PERSEUS  KILLING  ME- 
DUSA.   SELINUS  METOPE. 
In  the  Museum  at  Palermo. 
Cast  in  the  British  Museum. 


FIG.  93.— HERCULES  CARRYING  OFF 
TIIK  CKCROPES  (robbers). 

SELINUS  METOPE. 
Cast  in  the  British  Museum. 


are  named  by  Clemens  of  Alexandria  as  the  sculptors  of 
statues  of  Castor  and  Pollux  at  Argos,  of  Hercules  at  Tiryns, 
and  Diana  at  Sicyon.  It  is  also  related  by  Cedrenus  that, 
in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius  at  By/antium,  was 
to  be  seen  a  statue  of  Minerva  Lindia  of  '  smaragdus'  stone 
(rcrde  antico?}  four  cubits  high,  the  work  of  Scyllis  and 
Dipoenus,  which  had  formerly  been  sent  by  Sesostris,  the 
Egyptian  tyrant,  to  Cleobulus  of  Lindus.  These  references 
are  so  far  interesting  and  important  as  showing  with  fail- 
probability  that  these  statues  were  sculptures  in  the  round. 
Numerous  examples  of  archaic  sculpture  in  brou/e  and 


Fia.  95.— WARRIOR  OF   MARA- 
THON. 
Inscribed  "Work  of  Aristoclex.'1 

Pound  in  Attica. 
In  Athens  Museum. 


FIG. 96.— ULYSSES  (?)  MARBLE. 

Inscribed  in  Oscan  Characters. 

In  Xaples  Museum. 


78 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


marble,  some  of  hammered-out  work,  are  to  be  seen  in  all  the 
museums,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are  bas-reliefs  represent- 
ing the  figiu-e  in  profile.  Good  examples  are  Figs.  95,  96, 
which  show  a  general  resemblance  to  the 
Assyrian  rather  than  Egyptian  sculptures, 
as  well  as  those  found  at  Selinus  (Fig.  92). 
The  sharp  features  with  the  turned-up 
nose  and  smiling  mouth  and  the  short, 
crisp,  formal  curls  at  the  forehead  are 
characteristic  of  archaic  Greek  work  and 
are  seen  again  in  the  small  full-length 
Apollo  represented  in  Fig.  97  where  we 
also  notice  the  stiff  attitude  with  one  leg 
slightly  advanced. 

The  important  point  to  bear  in  mind  is 
the  general  archaic  condition  of  sculpture 
prevailing  at  a  time  extending  from  the 
first  Olympiad,  776  B.  C.,  to  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century  B.  C.  ;  examples  of 
which,  all  more  or  less  resembling  each 
other,  have  been  found  at  Mycenae,  Xan- 
thus,  Miletus,  Ephesus,  the  islands  of 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes  on  the  Asiatic  side  of 
the  JEgean ;  at  Seh'nus  in  Sicily,  and 
throughout  Magna  Grsecia ;  in  Italy  at 
Palestrina,  Perugia,  Cervetri,  as  well  as  in 
all  Etruria  far  up  on  the  west  coast  of 
Italy ;  in  Greece  proper,  in.  the  Pelopon- 
nesus at  Sparta,  Sicyon  and  Argos,  Ath- 
ens, and  TEgina — then  an  independent 
island  and  always  possessing  a  very  vig- 
orous school  of  sculpture,  in  bronze  especially,  though  des- 
tined to  yield  the  palm  when  Athens  rose  to  her  high  state. 


FIG.  97. — APOLLO  OF 

TK.NKA. 
Munich  ^fHKfitm. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

GREEK   SCULPTURE. 

Temple  Decoration.* 

IN  ^Egina  a  temple  of  Athene  was  begun  about  B.  C.  480 — 
478,  therefore  about  twenty-six  years  before  the  Parthe- 
non was  begun  at  Athens  and  about  the  same  time  as  the 
victories  of  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians  at  Plata?a  and  Mycale 
and  the  battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis.  The  temple  was 
built  of  sandstone  and  coated  with  stucco  in  a  method  resem- 
bling that  employed  in  the  temple  at  Selinus  in  Sicily.  Its 
gable  statues  and  those  of  the  Parthenon  are  the  only  examples 
as  yet  found  of  a  complete  pediment  series,  as  they  were  de- 
signed to  fill  the  architectural  space.  The  Niobe  figures  in  the 
Florence  Museum  are  supposed  to  have  formed  a  similar  com- 
position ;  but  this  is  not  yet  a  settled  point,  though  they  have 
been  placed  in  this  form.  The  JEginetan  statues  (Fig.  98)  are 
of  marble  and  were  purchased  by  the  late  King  Ludwig  of  Ba- 
varia and  placed  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich  after  having 
been  very  much  restored  by  Thorwaldseii  at  Rome.  The  west- 
ern pediment  is  that  given  in  our  illustration  ;  and  the  subject, 
formerly  thought  to  be  the  contest  for  the  body  of  Patroclus,  is 
now  thought  to  be  the  fight  of  Greeks  and  Trojans  around  the 
body  of  Achilles,  who  lies  at  the  feet  of  Athene.  These  eleven 
figures  are  in  better  preservation  than  those  of  the  eastern 
pediment,  which  was  so  far  destroyed  that  only  five  could  be 
put  together.  Those  of  the  east  pediment  are  rather  larger. 
They  represent  either  Hercules  and  his  companions  fighting 
over  the  body  of  Laomedoii  or  an  incident  of  the  expedition  of 
Hercules  and  Tt'lamon  against  Troy.  Athene  is  represented 


*For  a  description  of  temple  architecture  see  pages  9— >3. 


80 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


closely  after  the  hieratic  type,  con- 
siderably larger  than  the  other  fig- 
ures, with  her  feet  turned  sideways, 
but  her  face  to  the  front,  while  the 
mortal  combatants  are  placed  in 
various  attitudes  of  strong  action, 
but  with  most  of  the  heads  in  pro- 
file. These  statues  are  all  carved  in 
the  round  and  are  consequently 
most  interesting  as  showing  the 
great  step  in  advance  that  had  been 
made  in  technic  capabilities.  The 
study  of  the  figure  will  be  noticed  as 
singularly  accurate,  even  to  the  veins 
and  tendons  and  the  anatomy  of  the 
joints.  This  vigorous  naturalism  is 
carried  out  also  in  the  spirited  atti- 
tudes and  in  the  fallen  and  falling 
combatants.  The  remarkable  style 
in  which  the  athletic  points  of  the 
figures  are  displayed  by  the  sculptor, 
has  been  attributed  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  figure  which  he  gained  when 
he  witnessed  the  Olympic  games, 
the  victors  in  which  were  honored 
by  having  statues  made  of  them, 
often  at  the  expense  of  their  city  or 
state,  to  be  placed  in  the  groves  of 
the  temples.  Still  greater  realism 
was  obtained  by  making  the  weap- 
ons— spears  and  bows — (shown,  as 
replaced  by  modern  ones  in  the  cut) 
as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  details, 
of  bronze.  On  some  of  the  figures 
of  the  eastern  pediment  the  hair  of 
the  beards  was  .finished  witli  curls  ' 
of  metal  wire  attached,  while  the 
eyes  were  painted,  and  the  bloody 
wounds  were  also  colored.  This 
may  have  been  an.  improvement  of  a 


TEMPLE   IJECOKATION. 


81 


later  taste,  but,  whenever  applied,  portions  of  the  color  are  still 
to  be  seen.  The  figures  of  sturdy,  robust,  and  gladiatorial 
forms  are  short  in  the  proportions  and  are  under  the  size  of 
life.  The  heads  are  particularly  significant  of  the  art  of  the 
time,  carved  with  artistic  skill,  but  all  of  one  type,  and  having 
no  other  expression  than  the  same  complacent  smile.  Whether 
attacking  to  the  death  or  whether  in.  the  last  agony,  there  is 
the  same  smile.  This  was  so  probably  because  the  sculptor  did 
not  allow  himself  to  depart  from  the  received  type  of  the  heroic 
countenance.  It  was  not  that  he  was  incapable,  or  how  could 
he  have  modeled  the  body  so  exactly  with  an  accuracy  that 


FIG.  99.— METOPE  ;  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THESEUS.    29  INCHES  HIGH. 

perhaps  even  approaches  to  dryness?  Still,  it  was  not  the 
portrayal  of  beauty  that  was  the  aim,  but  a  forcible  representa- 
tion of  a  scene  of  historic  interest  with  all  the  accentuation 
and  emphasis  that  exact  imitation  could  give  without  the 
expression  of  the  countenance.  As  to  the  sculptor  of  these 
remarkable  statues,  two  names  are  recorded  as  celebrated  by 
Quintilian — Gallon  and  Hegesias  ;  but  whether  both  were 
engaged  upon  them,  as  if  one  did  the  eastern  and  the  other 
the  western  pediment,  is  not  related. 

Tli'-  Athenian  Style. 

At  Athens  we  have  already  seen  what  the  style  of  sculpture 
during  the  time  of  Pisistratus  and  his  successors  was  in  the 


82 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


stiffness  and  archaic  forms  of  the  draperies  (560 — 490  B.  C.) 
and  we  have  noted  the  absence  of  any  sculpture  in  the  round 
in  marble,  at  least  so  far  as  discovery  has  hitherto  gone.  But 
art  and  especially  architecture  had  advanced.  When  the  bones 
of  Theseus  were  found  in  Scyros,  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
^Egean,  by  Cimon  in  469  B.  C.,  the  oracle  directed  that  Athens 
should  be  their  guardian  ;•  and  a  temple  called  the  Theseum 
was  built  to  do  honor  to  the  remains  of  the  great  hero 
and  king  of  Athens.  The  pediment  of  this  temple,  which  is  of 
Pentelic  marble,  contained  statues ;  but  they  have  been  de- 
stroyed. Some  of  the  metopes  and  the  sculptured  friezes  in 


FIG.  100.— METOPE  ;  THESEUS  OVERCOMING  THE  WRESTLER  CERCYON. 

high  relief  at  the  east  and  west  ends  are  still  in  their  ancient 
position.     Figures  99  to  102  show  some  of  them. 

The  subjects  of  the  frieze  are,  at  the  east  end,  the  battle 
of  the  gods  and  the  giants,  and,  at  the  west,  Theseus  fighting 
with  the  Centaurs.  Theseus,  it  will  be  remembered,  killed 
the  Minotaur,  conquered  the  Amazons,  and  subdued  the  Cen- 
taurs at  Thebes.  Referring  to  the  illustrations  it  will  be  ob- 
served what  an  extraordinary  advance  there  is  in  these  figures 
from  the  style  of  the  ^Eginetan  statues ;  the  forms  are  well- 
proportioned,  the  head  not  too  large,  and  the  muscles  dis- 
played in  the  swelling,  lifelike  movement  of  muscles  in 
action.  The  one  figure  in  which  the  sculptor  evidently  in- 


TEMPLE   DECORATION. 


83 


tended  to  show  his  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  back, 
perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  any,  is  most  remarkable  (Fig. 
102).  There  is  nothing  finer  than  this  throughout  the  Par- 
thenon frieze.  Indeed,  it  will  be  admitted  on  comparing  these 
Theseum  sculptures  with  those  of  the  Parthenon,  that  the 
former  are  of  such  excellence  as  to  have  been  well  worthy 
of  being  examples  to  the  sculptors  who,  a  few  years  after- 
wards, were  engaged  under  Phidias. 


FIGS.  101, 102.— TEMPLE  OF  THESEUS  FRIEZE.  I.  THE  GODS  WATCHING  THE 
BATTLE.    II.  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  GODS  AND  GIANTS. 

It  is  important  to  understand  that  these  sculptures  of  the 
Theseum  must  have  been  studied  by  Phidias  and  his  con- 
temporaries and  that  they  must  have  raised  the  art  to  a  very 
high  standard,  such  as  would  inspire  the  loftiest  ambition  in 
those  who  were  afterwards  intrusted  with  the  works  of  the 
Parthenon.  It  is  not  known  whether  Ageladas,  the  master  of 


84  GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 

Phidias,  was  the  sculptor  who  designed  these  fine  works  ;  but, 
if  he  were,  we  might  imagine  that  some  of  these  figures  are  to 
be  ascribed  to  his  pupil,  destined  to  become  the  master  famous 
forever  as  the  greatest  in  classic  sculpture.  Other  able  sculp- 
tors of  the  time  were  Onatas  of  ^Egina  and  Calamis,  whose 
name  is  associated  with  bronze  work  and  who  is  distinguished 
as  the  sculptor  of  the  Apollo  Alexicacus. 

It  is  known  that  Phidias  finished  his  great  statue  in  ivory 
and  gold  in  the  Parthenon  in  the  third  year  of  the  85th 
Olympiad,  438  B.  C.,  when  he  must  have  been  about  58  or 
60  years  old,  if  born  as  presumed  between  the  70th  and  72d 
Olympiads  ;  therefore  it  is  quite  possible  that  he  might  have 
been  engaged  upon  the  sculptures  of  the  Theseum  as  a  young 
man.  That  he  must  have  acquired  the  reputation  of  being  the 
first  sculptor  in  Athens  at  the  time  the  Parthenon  was  deter- 
mined upon  by  Pericles,  is  only  what  is  to  be  concluded ; 
otherwise,  such  an  important  Mrork  would  not  have  been 
placed  in  his  hands. 

The  Grand  Style  of  Phidias. 

We  have  arrived  now  at  a  period  in.  ancient  art  when  at 
Athens,  the  center  of  the  civilization  of  the  world,  the  Par- 
thenon, the  most  beautiful  example  of  architecture,  adorned 
with  the  grandest  works  of  sculpture,  was  created.  Phidias 
was  intrusted  by  Pericles  with  the  general  design  and  direc- 
tion of  this  great  national  work  (4-54 — 138  B.  C.),  while  two 
architects,  Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  are  also  recorded  as  the 
practical  builders  and  probably  the  designers,  with  Phidias,  of 
the  temple.  The  whole  world  of  art,  ancient  and  modern, 
has  always  with  one  voice  extolled  the  architecture  and  the 
sculpture.  It  has  been  pronounced  "of  all  the  great  temples 
the  best  and  most  celebrated  ;  the  only  octostyle  (eight  col- 
umns wide)  Doric  temple  in  Greece,  and  in  its  own  class  un- 
doubtedly the  most  beautiful  building  in  the  world."  The 
architecture  of  the  Parthenon  has  already  been  described  (pages 
16-27). 

The  subject  of  the  Parthenon  sculptures  has  received  an  im- 
mense amount  of  learned  investigation,  particularly  by  the 
German  archzeologists,  and  especially  by  Michaelis,  who  may 
be  said  to  have  almost  exhausted  the  materials.  It  would 


TEMPLE  DECORATION. 


85 


be  impossible,  within  any  practical  limits,  to  place  before 
the  reader  the  arguments  as  to  the  identification  of  the  various 
figures.  We  shall  therefore  content  ourselves  with  a  brief 
statement  of  the  conclusions  that  have  been  reached. 

The  Frieze  (page  51).  The  frieze  sculptures  represent  the 
famous  procession  in  honor  of  Athene  the  patroness  of  the 
city.  "On  the  birthday  of  the  goddess  the  procession  which 
conveyed  the  j^los  (a  robe  in  this  case  embroidered  with 
mythological  figures)  to  her  temple,  assembled  in  the  outer 
Kerameikos  (quarter  of  the  modelers)  and  passed  through 


FHJ.  103.— FROM  THE  FRIEZE  OF  THE  PARTHENON,  47^  INCHES  HIGH. 

the  lower  city  round  the  Acropolis,  which  it  ascended  through 
the  Propylsea  (page  17).  During  its  passage  through  the 
Kerameikos  the  2^cplos  was  displayed  on  the  mast  of  the  ship 
which  was  propelled  on  rollers.  On  the  eastern  frieze  the 
delivery  of  the  peplos  is  represented  in  the  presence  of  certain 
deities  (Fig.  106).  Toward  this  central  point  converge  two 
lines  of  procession,  which,  starting  from  the  west  side  of  the 
temple,  proceed  along  its  northern  and  southern  sides  toward 
the  center  of  the  eastern  front."  Beginning  with  the  western 
frieze,  the  start  of  the  horsemen  under  the  direction  of  one  of 
the  marshals,  and  the  figures  of  men  in  various  attitudes 


86 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


of  mounting  and  riding,  display  the  wonderful  power  of 
the  ancient  Greek  sculptor  in  representing  the  horse  and 
his  rider  (Fig.  103) .  Nothing  can  be  finer  in  composition  than 
many  of  these  groups  of  complex  forms  or  more  striking 
than  the  effect  given  with  such  very  low  relief.  Along  the 
northern  frieze  the  horsemen  are  continued  in  crowded  though 
admirably  composed  throngs.  Amazing  inventive  faculty  is 
shown  in  the  variety  of  attitude  and  unflagging  spirit  and 
lifelike  energy  characterizing  the  figures.  As  Mr.  Newton 
remarks — "  In  the  125  mounted  figures  in  this  cavalcade  we  do 
not  find  one  single  monotonous  repetition.  .  .  A  rhythmical 
effect  is  produced  by  the  contrast  of  the  impetuous  horses  and 
their  calm  steadfast  riders."  Several  figures  carrying  vases, 
others  with  trays  holding  offerings  of  cakes,  and  others  lead- 
ing the  cows  to  be  sacrificed  are  remarkable  for  freedom 

r 


FIG.  104.— PART  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  FRIEZE  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 

and  naturalness  (Fig.  104).  These  last  were  the  offerings  con- 
tributed by  the  colonies  to  the  great  festival.  On  the  eastern 
frieze  we  see  the  two  great  lines  of  the  procession  meeting 
over  the  entrance,  where  a  group  of  magistrates  receive  the 
advancing  procession  on  either  side.  Here  are  two  groups 
of  twelve  seated  male  and  female  figures  in  pairs,  six  on 
one  side  and  six  on  the  other.  Between  these  are  five 


TKMPLE  DECOKATIOX. 


87 


standing  figures  (Fig.  106),  representing  the  offering  of  the 
peplos.  The  beautiful  maidens  of  Athens,  draped  and  carry- 
ing jugs,  are  noble  figures  in  graceful  and  stately  attitudes. 

The  central  portion  of  the  eastern  frieze  has  been  the  subject 
of   much   discus- 
sion, but,  the  faces 
as  well  as  the  attri- 
butes  and    other 
indicatiousby    3 
which  they  could    ? 
be  identified,  hav-    8 
ing  suffered  much    ^ 
injury,  it  is  very    2 
difficult  to  judge    | 
the  true  interpre- 
tation. 

The  southern 
frieze  is  occupied 
with  the  chariots 
and  the  sacrificial 
cows  and  sheep, 
the  offerings  of 
the  colonies,  with 
numerous  figures 
of  drovers  a  11  d 
others  in  every 
beautiful  variety 
of  attitude  (Fig. 
104).  Each  chari- 
oteer is  accompa- 
nied by  an  armed 
warrior  either  in 
the  chariot  or  at 
its  side,  not  as  in 
the  northern 
frieze  stepping  in- 
to it.  The  horse- 
men on  this  south 
side  are  in  moiv 
regular  order  and 


88 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


not  in  a  tumultuous  throng  as  on  the  opposite  side  and  there- 
fore it  has  been  supposed  they  are  the  trained  cavalry  of 
Athens.  This  part  of  the  frieze  is  much  injured. 

The  Metopes 
(page  51).  These 
are  the  blocks 
sculptured  with 
groups  partly  in 
high  relief  and 
partly  in  the 
round,  which  oc- 
cupy the  spaces 
known  asmetopce. 
They  were  on  the 
outside  of  the  tem- 
ple, above  the 
architrave  and 
were  continued  all 
round,  92  in  num- 
ber, viz. :  14  at  each 
end  beneath  the 
pediments  and  32 
at  each  side.  Of 
these  scarcely 
thirty  are  well 
preserved,  fifteen 
i  n  the  British 
Museum,  one  in 
the  Louvre  i  n 
Paris,  the  rest  in 
their  original  po- 
sitions in  the  Par- 
thenon. 

The  metopes  on 
the  south  side 
have  for  their  sub- 
ject the  contest  of 
the  Centaurs  and  Lapithre  at  the  marriage  feast  of  Pirithous. 
The  twenty-eighth  metope  in  the  original  series  is  pointed  out 
specially  by  Mr.  Newton— "  for  dramatic  power  in  the  con- 


TEMPL.K  DECOKATION. 


89 


ception  and  truth  in   the  modeling  of  the  forms  this  metope 
is  unrivaled  "  (Fig.  107). 

The  metopes  of  the  north  side  are  so  much  damaged  that 
their  subjects  cannot  be  made  out,  but  it  is  conjectured  by 
Michaelis  that  they  may  have  represented  a  scene  from  the 
taking  of  Troy ;  while  Mr.  Newton  suggests  they  may  have 
been  a  continuation  of  the  series  of  combats  of  Centaurs 
and  Lapitlue. 


FIG.  107.— CONTEST  BETWEEN  THE  CENTAURS  AND  THE  L 
ONE  OK  THE  METOPES  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 

Of  the  metopes  on  the  west  front,  all  except  two  remain 
in  position,  hut  are  too  much  injured  to  be  made  out  ;  the 
subject  appears  to  refer  to  the  battles  of  Greeks  with  Amazons. 

The  metopes  of  the  east  front  are  all  in  position  on  the 
temple,  though  much  injured.  The  subject,  however,  is 
known  to  be  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  giants. 

Tf ic  Sculptures  of  tlic,  P>  dinunts  (Fiirs.  10s,  100)  represented, 
as  I'uusanias  describes,  over  the  eastern  end  above  the  entrance 
to  the  temple  the  birth  <>f  Athene  and  over  the  western  end 
the  contest  of  Athene  and  Neptune  for  the  soil  of  Attica.  The 


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TEMPLE  DECORATION. 


91 


broken  statues  and  fragmentary  parts  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum. 

The  group  which  still  remains  on  the  pediment  at  Athens  is 
considered  to  be  that  of  Cecrops  and  Aglaurus.  The  heads  are 
gone. 

The  identification  of  each  of  the  figures  of  the  pediment 
sculptures  must  still  be  a  matter  of  discussion ;  and  as  we 
cannot  pretend  to  give  a  statement  of  the  various  opinions 


FIG.  110.— THK  TIIESETS,  SOMETIMES  CALLED  THE  IJJ.EAN  HEKCULKS. 

that  have  been  given,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  writers 
who  have  devoted  so  much  attention  to  the  subject.  The 
drawings  by  Carrey  (Figs.  108  and  109)  afford,  after  all,  the 
only  trustworthy  evidence  as  to  the  position  of  the  statues. 

The  Eastern  Pediment.-  TJic  Hirth  of  Athene. 
The  names  given  to  the  broken  statues  above  mentioned  are 
those  which  were  proposed  by  the  archaeologist  Visconti  in  1816 
in  the  memoir  lie  read  to  the  Institute  of  France  at  the 
time  when  the  Parthenon  marbles  were  acquired  by  the 
British  Museum. 


92 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE   AND   SCULPTURE. 


As  to  the  Iris  (Fig.  112),  all  agree  with  Visconti  except 
Brunn,  who  proposes  that  it  may  be  Hebe,  and  he  also  suggests 
that  the  whole  subject  was  the  moment  before  the  birth 
of  Athene.  To  this  it  must  be  an  obvious  objection  that 
the  figure  displays  the  action  of  rapid  movement  upward  and 
away  from  the  central  group.  Hebe  as  the  daughter  of  Zeus 
and  Hera  would  not  be  an  appropriate  personage  at  the  birth 
of  Athene,  while  Iris  as  the  messenger  of  the  god  has  a 


Firs.  111.—  THE  THESEUS,  OK  ID-EAX  HERCULES. 


most  significant  part  and  fills  up  the  fine  poetic  conception 
of  the  subject. 

The  Hor^s  Head.  (Fig.  113).  Of  the  two  heads  of  the 
horses  belonging  to  the  car  of  Selene,  this  has  fortunately  been 
preserved  in  much  of  its  original  beauty.  The  other,  which 
remains  on  the  pediment,  is  described  as  now  a  mere  shapeless 
mass  ;  though  as  it  was  hidden  behind  this  head  it  may  never 
have  been  so  highly  wrought  as  its  fellow.  Some  interesting 
points  are  to  be  noticed  in  this  grand  head.  It  is  inclined 


TKMPL.K  DKCOKATION.  93 

downward,  as  in  the  descent  of  the  departing  Night  before  the 
advancing  horses  of  the  day  at  the  opposite  angle  (Fig.  109, 
extreme  left),  whose  fiery  heads  are  tossed  as  they  spring 
into  the  air  out  of  the  waves.  "  In  the  whole  range  of  ancient 
art  there  is  perhaps  no  work  in  marble  in  which  the  sculptor 


Fi<;.  112.— IKIS.    Ox  THK  EASTKKN  PEDIMENT  OF  THE  PAUTHKNON. 

has  shown  such  complete  mastery  over  his  material.  The 
nostrils  'drink  the  air'  as  if  animated  with  the  breath  of 
life"  (Newton}.  It  was  highly  praised  by  Goethe.  It  is  a 
remarkable  example  of  the  genius  of  Greek  art  in  uniting1 
exact  imitation  of  nature  with  the  higher  beauty  of  an  ideal 


94 


(JKKKK   ARCHITECTURE   AND  SCULPTURE. 


type  or  in  the  words  of  Goethe  "seems  the  revelation  of 
a  prototype  ;  it  combines  real  truth  with  the  highest  poetical 
conception."  This  head,  as  seen  in  Carrey's  drawing,  pro- 
jected in  front  of  the  cornice  and  the  marble  has  been  cut 
away  to  allow  this.  There  are  also  some  drill-holes  behind 
the  ears  and  on  the  nose,  showing  that  a  metal  bridle  was 
originally  fitted  to  it,  and  the  crest  of  the  hogmane  has 
holes  which  served  to  fasten  some  ornament. 

The  Three  Fates.  (Fig.  114.)  Though  headless  now,  two  of 
them  are  seen  in  Carrey's  drawing  with  their  heads,  the  one 
nearest  the  angle  turned  toward  the  horses  of  Selene,  the  other 
toward  the  central  group.  The  right  arms  of  two  were  then 
only  partially  injured,  but  are  now  lost. 


FIG.  113.— THE  HOUSE'S  HEA.D.    CAR  OF  SKLKXK. 

The  Nike,  Victory.  This  figure,  not  in  Carrey's  drawing, 
was  found  lying  on  the  ground  below  the  pediment,  and 
Visconti  naturally  concluded  it  had  stood  as  Victory 
present  at  the  birth  of  Athene.  Some  most  interesting 
discoveries  have  been  made  among  the  fragments  brought 
with  the  Parthenon  marbles  by  Lord  Elgin.  In  1860  Mr. 
Watkiss  Lloyd  identified  the  thigh  of  this  Nike  and  in 
1875  the  knee  was  recognized  and  these  have  since  been  added 
to  the  statue.  Wings  of  marble  wrere  attached  to  the  shoul- 
ders, where  are  to  be  seen  the  deep  sinking  for  their  attach- 
ment with  holes  for  metal  dowels.  The  position  of  the  Xikfe 
in  the  pediment  would  depend  on  these  wings;  as,  if  they 


TEMPLE  DECORATION. 


95 


were  much  raised,  it  must  have  stood  nearer  the  center  than  it 
is  placed  in.  the  Museum. 

Prometheus  or  Jfrphcestux.  A  mutilated  statue  in  the 
Museum  at  Athens,  which  was  found  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Parthenon  in 
1836  and  was  un- 
known to  Visconti. 
"  The  action  of  the 
shoulders  and  mus- 
cles of  the  back  sug- 
gests the  notion  of 
a  figure  about  to 
strike  with  both 
arms  lifted  above 
the  head"  (New- 
ton). It  is  consid- 
ered to  beeither  that 
of  Hephaestus,  who 
according  to  the 
ancient  myth 
cleaved  the  head  of 
Zeus  with  his  ax  to 
accomplish  the 
birth  of  Athene, — 
as  represented  on 
t  he  patera  (Fig. 
115),  showing  him 
standing  with  his 
ax — or  that  of  Pro- 
metheus, to  whom 
Attic  tradition  pre- 
ferred to  attribute 
the  deed.  I)e 
Quin  c  y  proposed 
that  this  patera 
might  be  taken  as 
an  authority  for  the 
central  group  of  the 

pediment  and  he  gives  a  restoration  from  it  in  his  great  work 
above  referred  to. 


96 


GREEK   AKCHITECTUKE   AND  SCULPTURE. 


The  Western  Pediment. 

The  mutilated  statues  of  the  western  pediment  as  seen  in 
Carrey's  drawing  (Fig.  108)  are  sufficiently  complete  to  indi- 
cate the  subject  ;  but  they  were  reduced  to  mere  fragments  and 
torsos  before  Stuart  saw  the  Parthenon  (A.  D.  1751). 

The  general  conclusion  come  to,  first  by  De  Quincy  and 
Visconti,  is  that  the  composition  of  this  pediment  was  ar- 
ranged as  if  embraced  between  the  two  rivers  of  Athens  — 
the  Ilissus  and  Cephissus  —  the  figures  on  the  left  hand  side 
of  Athene  being  Attic  deities  or  heroes,  while  those  on  the 
side  of  Poseidon  are  marine  deities,  his  allies  as  ruler  of  the 
ocean. 

It  remains  to  be  said  of  these  wonderful  sculptures  of  the 

Parthenon,  that  it  is  impossible 
that  they  could  all  have  been  by 
the  hand  of  Phidias  ;  or  that  they 
could  have  been  done  in  the  time 
of  certainly  not  more  than  six- 
teen years  by  any  one  man.  A 
very  decided  opinion  is  given  by 
M.  Rochette  :  "  These  sculptures 
which  emanated  from  the  mind 
of  Phidias  and  were  most  cer- 
tainly executed  under  his  eye 
and  in  his  school  are  not  the 
works  of  his  hand.  Phidias  hiui- 
self  disdained  or  worked  but  lit- 

,,  ,  ,  TT  . 

tie  111  marble.     His  most  skillful 
Agoracritus,   and  it  was  most 


FIG.  115.-BIKTH  OF  ATHENE,  ON 

A  PATERA,  OR  CUP. 


pupils  were  Alcamencs  and 
probably  the  latter  who  executed  the  sculptures  in  alto-relievo 
in  the  two  pediments.  And  they  were  artists  without  name, 
but  certainly  not  without  merit,  who  produced  from  the 
designs  of  Phidias  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  frieze." 

It  is  in  vain  to  attempt  to  pronounce  as  to  which  of  the 
beautiful  fragments  of  the  Parthenon  statues  is  by  the  hand  of 
Phidias  ;  but  by  the  common  consent  of  critics  the  Theseus, 
the  Ilissus  or  Cephissus  of  the  nude  figures,  and  the  Fates  and 
Ceres  and  Proserpine  of  the  draped  figures,  are  acknowledged 
to  be  the  grandest  examples  of  sculpture  ever  achieved.  That 
Alcameiies,  who  was  taught  by  Phidias,  must  have  been 


KlG.    IHi.—  IlKKMKS   CAKKYIXCJ    TUF.    INFANT   DIONYSUS.      V.  V    PRAXITELES: 

Jiccently  discovered  at  Olympia.    A  cast  in  the  liritish  Museum. 


98  GREEK   AKCHITECTUKE  AND   SCULPTURE. 

esteemed  a  great  man,  is   shown  by  his  having  contended 
with  Phidias  in  a  competition  for  a  statue  of  Athene. 
Other  Works  of  Phidias. 

We  have  next  to  notice  the  other  great  works  of  Phidias, 
which,  though  utterly  destroyed,  were  fortunately  seen  by 
Pausanias;  whose  descriptions  of  them  remain.  There  were 
three  great  statues  of  Athene  on  the  Acropolis.  1.  The  one 
of  ivory  and  gold  in  the  Parthenon,  about  37  feet  high  not 
including  the  pedestal,  which  was  about  10  feet.  2._  A  bronze 
known  as  the  Lemnian  because  it  was  made  at  the  cost 
of  the  people  of  Lemnos  ;  this  Pausauias  and  Lucian  describe 
as  the  most  beautiful  and  on  this  Phidias  inscribed  his  name  ; 
it  is  not  stated  to  have  been  colossal.  3.  The  bronze  colossal 
statue  known  as  Athene  Promachus,  which  stood  between 
the  Propylsea  and  the  Parthenon;  it  was  between  50  and 
60  feet  high,  and  probably  gilt,  and  it  was  cast  from  the  spoils 
of  Marathon.  The  crest  of  the  helmet  and  the  point  of  the 
spear  could  be  seen  far  out  at  sea.  The  shield  of  the  god- 
dess was  carved  by  Mys  from  the  designs  of  Parrhasius  the 
great  painter.  It  was  still  erect  in  395  A.  D.,  and  is  said 
to  have  struck  terror  into  the  barbarian  soldiers  of  Alaric. 

The  still  more  famous  colossal  statue  by  Phidias,  the  Zeus  at 
Olympia  in  Elis,  was  his  last  great  work.  It  was  made  be- 
tween B.  C.  438,  the  date  of  the  consecration  of  the  Parthenon 
statue,  and  B.  C.  432,  the  year  of  his  death,  at  Elis. 

This  was  a  seated  statue  of  ivory  and  gold,  55  feet  high 
including  the  throne.  Strabo  remarks  that  "if  the  god  had 
risen  he  would  have  carried  away  the  roof,"  and  the  height 
of  the  interior  was  about  55  feet ;  the  temple  being  built  on  the 
model  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  which  was  64  feet  to 
the  point  of  the  pediment.  Pausanias  has  given  a  minute 
description  of  this  renowned  statue,  from  which  we  learn  what 
an  extraordinary  amount  of  sculptured  work  was  bestowed 
as  accessory  to  the  statue. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

GREEK   SCULPTURE. 

The  /Successors  of  Phidias. 

WE  may  now  notice  some  examples  of  sculpture  of  the 
time  of  Phidias  and  of  the  later  Athenian  style  about 
the  middle  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.,  which  have 
been  discovered  at  Olympia  within  the  last  few  years  in 
the  researches  made  under  the  direction  and  at  the  expense  of 
the  German  government.  Olympia,  it  was  known  by  the 
history  of  Pausanias,  had  its  Temple  of  Zeus,  the  pediments 
of  which  were  filled  with  statues  by  Alcamenes,  who  was  a 
pupil  of  Phidias,  and  by  Pteonius,  and  some  of  these  pedi- 
ment statues  have  been  recovered  in  a  very  broken  state  and 
put  together.  The  most  important  discoveries,  however,  are  a 
heroic  statue  of  Hermes  carrying  the  infant  Dionysus  by 
Praxiteles  (Fig.  116),  and  a  Victory,  the  head  and  arms  of 
winch  are  lost,  the  work  of  Pteonius. 

The  subjects  of  the  sculptures  in.  the  pediments  of  this 
temple  are  described  by  Pausanias.  In  the  eastern  pediment 
the  "Contest  between  Pelops  and  CEnomaus"  was  by  Pseonius, 
whose  name  has  now  been  discovered  carved  in  the  marble ; 
and  in  the  western  pediment  the  "  liattle  between  the  Cen- 
taurs and  Lapitlue  "  was  by  Alcamenes. 

The  recent  recovery  of  the  Hermes  and  the  pediment  statues 
by  Alcamenes  and  Pujonius  is  of  great  importance,  as  enabling 
us  to  identify  the  work  of  Praxiteles,  the  sculptor  of  the  famous 
Venus  of  Cnidus.  The  style  and  works  of  Praxiteles,  how- 
ever, will  come  in  for  consideration  further  on,  while  some 
other  sculptures  of  this  period  must  be  noticed  here. 
Temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalid. 

Ictinus,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon,  was  employed  to 
build  a  temple  to  Apollo  Epicuritis  near  the  ancient  Phigalia 


100 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


in  Arcadia  at  the  time  after  the  plague  in  430  B.  C.  The  frieze 
of  this  temple  is  in  the  British  Museum,  placed  around  the 
walls  of  the  room  in  which  are  the  casts  of  the  JEgina, 
pediments,  called  the  Hellenic  Room.  They  decorated  the  in- 
terior and  the  figures  are  in  high  relief,  showing  very  strong 
action,  with  draperies  much  contorted  and  exaggerated  in  the 
curves  of  the  folds,  as  if  the  sculptor  having  noticed  the 
fine  effect  in  the  Parthenon  figures  had  tried  not  only  to 
imitate  but  to  surpass  them,  and  thus  failed  while  becoming 
too  artificial,  and  departing  from  the  true  forms  sanctioned  by 
Phidias.  There  is,  however,  much  power  and  originality 


FIG.  117.— FRIEZE  OF  THE  TEMPLE  AT  PHIGALIA. 
27%  inches  high.    In  the  JUritish  Museum, 

in  some  of  these  works,  as  in  Fig.  117,  of  the  Amazon  being 
dragged  from  her  horse.  The  name  of  the  sculptor  or  sculp- 
tors of  these  is  not  known.  There  are  twenty-three  slabs, 
eleven  representing  the  battle  between  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapitlue,  the  rest  the  contest  of  the  Greeks  and  Amazons. 
This  frieze  was  placed  about  twenty-three  feet  from  the 
ground,  being  a  little  more  than  two  feet  in  height.  There 
were  originally  twenty-four  slabs  extending  about  a  hundred 
feet  in  length,  so  that  one  is  lost.  The  ruins  were  discovered 
in  1812  by  the  late  Mr.  Cockerell,  R  A.,  Mr.  Forster,  and 
two  Germans,  Messrs.  Haller  von  Hallerstein  and  Liiikh, 
to  whom  we  owe  the  recovery  of  the  ^Egiua  marbles. 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  PHIDIAS. 


101 


Temple  of  Wingless  Victory. 

Portions  of  a  frieze,  now  in  the  Elgin  Room  of  the 
British  Museum,  from  the  little  temple  of  Wingless  Vic- 
tory, near  the  Propylsea  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  built  in 
the  time  of  Cimon,  B.  C.  450,  should  be  noticed  as  showing 
work  of  the  Phidian  period.  The  drapery  is  larger  in  style  than 
in  the  Phigalian  reliefs,  which  these  sculptures  somewhat 
resemble.  The  subjects  are  Athenian  warriors  fighting  with 
men,  some  in  Persian,  others  in  Greek  dress.  Relief  slabs  in 
Athens  from  the  balustrades  which  ran  along  the  edge  of  the 
Acropolis  about  the  temple  represent  five  figures  of  Victory, 
two  of  which  (partly  seen  in  Fig.  119)  are  leading  a  bull  to 


FIG.  US.— FRIEZE  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  WINGLESS  VICTORY. 

sacrifice.  "These  reliefs  are  all  in  the  finest  style "  (Neivton'}. 
The  grand  treatment  of  the  draperies  is  especially  remarkable 
in  the  beautiful  figure  with  one  foot  raised  as  if  to  tie  the 
sandal  (Fig.  120)  in  which  the  form  is  finely  shown  beneath 
the  drapery. 

Tfif  Mausoleum  (it  Jfalicarnassus. 

The  discovery  in  the  year  1857,  of  the  ruins  with  sculptured 
figures  in  the  round  and  friexes  belonging  to  the  famous  tomb 
of  Mausolus  (died  3-~>3  B.  C.) — which  was  raised  to  his  memory 
by  his  wife  Artemisia  at  Halicarnassus  in  ('aria  (Asia  Minor) — 
was  an  event  of  very  great  interest.  It  brought  to  light  the 
works  of  no  less  than  five  .sculptors  whose  names  had  long 


102 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


been  known  through  Pliny's  account  of  the  structure  which 
gave  the  name  "Mausoleum  "  to  all  tombs  that  approached  this 
in  importance  and  magnificence  of  decoration.  The  Greeks 

called  a  tomb  of  this 
kind  Jfcroon,  and 
this  particular  one  so 
surpassed  all  others 
that  it  was  named 
among  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 
It  wras  of  Parian  mar- 
ble 140  feet  high,  pyr- 
amidal in  form  of 
steps  supported  on  a 
peristyle  of  Ionic 
columns  on  a  lofty 
basement.  The 
whole  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  colos- 
sal group  of  a  chariot 
and  four  horses,  with 
Mausolus  standing  in 
it,  and  another  fig- 
ure— supposed  to  be 
either  a  goddess  as 
charioteer  or  Arte- 
misia herself,  who 
died  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work. 
This  group  was  the 
work  of  Pythis  or 
Pythius,  who  was 
also  the  architect; 
while  the  various 
statues,  lions,  and  re- 
liefs— of  which  fray- 


FIG.  Hit.— FROM  THE  BALUSTRADE  OF  THE  TEM- 
PLE OF  WINGLESS  VICTORY.    VICTORY 

LEADING  A  BULL. 
A  cast  in  the  British  Museum. 


ments  more  or  less 
broken  are  preserved—were  by  Scopas,  Leochares,  Bryaxis, 
and  Timotheus.  The  east  side  was  the  work  of  Scopas,  the 
north  of  Bryaxis,  the  south  of  Timotheus,  and  the  west  of 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  PHIDIAS. 


103 


Leochares,  as  described  by  Pliny,  who  also  names  Pythis  as 

the  sculptor  of  the  chariot  and  figures  on  the  summit.     In 

style  these  sculptures 

resemble  the  Phiga- 

lian    reliefs,  having 

similar  strong  action 

and  flying  draperies 

(see  page  100).     All 

these  sculptors  be- 

longed to  the    later 

Athenian    school; 

and    it  "will    be    ob- 

served in  their  works, 

fine  as  they  are,  how 

far  the  art  had  al- 

ready begun    to   de- 

cline.   The  head   of 

Mausolus,  a  critic  re- 

marks, is  u  not  of  the 

Hellenic  type,  as  he 

was  a  Curian,"  but  it 

is  remarkable  in 

characteristic  expres- 

sion and  as  a  portrait. 

The  date  of  these 

works  is  about  B.  C. 

352. 

The  sculptors  were 
selected  from  those 
who  had  already  dis- 
tinguished the  m  - 
selves.  Scopas  was 
a  nati  ve  of  Paros,  and 
he  and  Praxiteles  uf- 
ter  the  time  of  Phid- 
ias,  were  heads  of  the 
school  of  architecture  and  sculpture  at  Athens,  which  arose 
subsequent  to  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  he  or  Praxiteles  was   the  sculptor 
of  the  Niobe  statues  (Fig.   140)  which  were  in  Pliny's  time 


120.—  FKOM    THE    BAI.USTKADK    OF 
TKMPLE  OF  WlNGLESS  VICTORY. 


104 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Sosianus  in  Rome.     A  Greek  epigram 
upon  the  Niobe  is  extant  in  which  Praxiteles  is  thus  named  : 

"  I  am  she  whom  the  gods  from  life  had  changed  into  marble. 
Praxiteles  by  his  art  woke  me  from  stone  into  life." 

Bryaxis  was  of 
the  school  of 
Rhodes,  where  he 
made  five  of  the 
smaller  bronze  co- 
lossal statues  of 
the  Sun  God.  In 
Cnidus  he  made 
other  statues. 
Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria says  that 
some  attributed 
works  of  Phidias 
to  him,  while  Co- 
lumella  includes 
him  with  such 
masters  as  Poly- 


*    cletus,    Lysippus, 
and  Praxiteles. 

Timotheus  and 
Leochares  appear 
to  have  been 
Athenians.  Pau- 
sanias  mentions 
the  latter  as  the 
sculptor  of  several 
statues  in  bronze 
and  in  ivory  and 
gold.  Plutarch 
speaks  of  his 
1 '  Rape  of  Gany- 
mede "  as  his  masterpiece.  Of  this  a  copy  in  marble  is  in  the 
Vatican  collection — a  fine  group  of  a  figure,  nude  except  a 
mantle  across  the  neck  falling  down  behind,  raised  by  the  eagle 
through  the  air,  while  his  dog  looks  upward  from  the  ground. 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  PHIDIAS. 


105 


It  will  have  been  seen  from  what  has  been  said  of  the  works 
of  sculpture  which  are  known  to  have  been  executed  by  the 
sculptors  contemporary  with  Phidias  and  by  others  who 
followed  in  the  school  which  arose  around  him  and  who 
formed  what  is  spoken  of  as  "  the  later  Athenian  School,"  that 
none  approached  the  great  examples  of  the  Parthenon. 
Sculpture  then  reached  the  highest  point  in  the  grandest 
style,  whether  in  the  treatment  of  the  statue  in  the  round 


FIG.  122.— BAS-RELIEF  OF  MERCURY,  EuRYnrcE,  ORPHEUS. 
Similar  to  the  one  at  Naples,  which  bears  the  inscription  in  sharply  cut  letters. 

or  of  bas-relief  as  in  the  frieze  or  of  alto-relievo  as  in  the 
metopes.  As  to  the  chryselephantine  statues  of  Phidias, 
it  may  be  concluded  without  hesitation  that  though  we  are 
compelled  to  rely  upon  descriptions  only,  they  must  have  been 
works  of  the  great  master  even  more  beautiful  than  the 
marbles.  There  is  every  reason  to  conclude  that  although 
color  was  applied,  and  the  eyes  perhaps  even  made  to  re- 


106 


GREEK:  ARCHITECTURE  AM>  SCULPTURE. 


semble  life  very  closely  by  means  of  enamel  of  some  kind,  yet 
such  was  the  perfection  of  form  obtained,  that  these  were 
minor  adornments  only  adopted  to  give  the  appearance  of  real 


FIG.  123.— BAS-RELIEF  OF  KLEUSIS.     CERES,  TKIFTOLEMUS,  PUOSPERINE. 
Discovered  1859.    In  the  Museum  at  Athens. 

life  and  complete  the  illusion  in  the  minds  of  the  worshipers. 
It  may  be  difficult  to  reconcile  the  minute  execution  of 
detail  in  the  work  of  Phidias  with  his  grand  ideal  of  the  beau- 
tiful in  simple  form.  But  the  descriptions  recorded  prove  that 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF   PHIDIAS. 


107 


he  carried  "finish"  to  its  extreme  point,  as  Leonardo  and 
other  great  artists  after  him  have  delighted  in  doing,  as  if  to 
bestow  the  utmost  of  his  art  was  a  point  of  devotion  and 
worship. 

Of  the  few  statues  that  can  be  confidently  attributed  to  the 
contemporaries  of  Phidias,  some  are  described  among  the  ex- 
amples (Chapter  VIII.)  of  which  the  engravings  will  afford  a 
general  idea.  The  attention  of  the  student  should  be  given 
to  the  important  statue  (Fig.  133),  rep- 
resenting an  athlete  of  full  life  size, 
winding  a  fillet  around  his  head,  and 
considered  to  be  a  copy  from  a  cele- 
brated statue  of  Polycletus. 

Certain  bas-reliefs,  resembling  in 
style  the  art  of  Phidias,  are  to  be  found 
in  the  museums,  such  as  that  in  the 
Naples  collection,  of  Orpheus,  Eurydice, 
and  Hermes  (Fig.  122),  inscribed  in 
letters  of  the  time,  two  repetitions  of 
which  exist,  one  in  the  Louvre,  the 
other  in  the  Villa  Albani  at  Rome  ;  the 
alto-relievo  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda 
in  the  Capitol  at  Rome  ;  a  large  relief, 
in  Pentelic  marble,  of  two  combatants 
and  a  horse,  in  the  Villa  Albani. 

The  bas-relief  of  Eleusis,  discovered 
in  1859  (Fig.  123),  may  perhaps  also 
be  considered  to  be  of  about  this  time. 
The  names  of  the  sculptors  of  these 
works  are,  however,  unknown.  In  the 
works  of  the  later  Athenian  school,  at 
the  head  of  which  were  Scopas  and 
Praxiteles,  the  sublime  ideal  of  Greek 
art  was  110  longer  sustained  by  any 
new  creations  that  can  be  compared 
with  those  of  the  Phidian  school ;  no 
rivalry  with  those  great  masters  seemed 
to  be  attempted.  The  severe  and  grand 
were  beyond  the  comprehension  or 
probably  uncongenial  to  the  spirit  of 


FIG.   124.— ICARUS :   FOK- 

MEKLY  CALLED  EKOS. 

Marble.    In  Brit.  Museum. 

Found    in    tfte    Acropolis, 

A(?n-ns.     Jn  t?i'-  style 

of  Praxiteles. 


108 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


the  age,  which  inclined  toward  the  poetic,  the  graceful,  the 
sentimental,  and  romantic,  as  we  have  already  observed  in 
speaking  of  the  aesthetic  tendencies  of  that  period.  The  whole 
range  of  the  beautiful  myths  found  abundant  illustration  in 
forms  entirely  different  from  the  ancient  archaic  represen- 


FIG.  I'Jo.—TiiE  CYMBAL-PLAYER.    A  HAS-RELIEF  IN  THE  VILLA  ALBAXI. 

Style  of  Scopas. 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF  PHIDIAS. 


109 


tations,  and  in  these  the  fancy  of  the  sculptor  was  allowed 
the  freest  and  fullest  indulgence.    Nymphs,  Nereids,  Msenads, 


FIG.  126.— A  M.*;NAD.     BAS-RELIEF.     IN  THE  BRITISH 

Fine  example  of  drapery.    Attributed  to  Scopas. 

and  Bacchantes  occupied  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor  in  every 
form  of  graceful  beauty  (Fig.  128). 

Macedonian  Period. 
After  this  epoch,  to  which   so  many  of  the    fine    statues 


110  OKEKK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 

belong — repetitions  in  marble  of  famous  originals  in  bronze- 
Greek  sculpture  took  another  pbase  in  accordance  with  the 
social  life  and  the  taste  of  the  age,  which  inclined  toward 
the  feeling  for  display  that  arose  with  the  domination  of 
the  Macedonian  power  brought  to  its  height  by  the  conquests 
and  ambition  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Lysippus,  a  self- 
taught  sculptor  of  Sicyon,  was  the  leading  artist  of  his  time. 
He  was  evidently  a  student  of  nature  and  individual  character, 
as  he  was  the  first  to  become  celebrated  for  his  portraits, 
especially  those  of  Alexander.  He  departed  from  the  severe 
and  grand  style,  and  in  the  native  conceit  of  all  self-taught 
men  sneered  at  the  art  of  Polycletus  in  the  well-known  saying 
recorded  of  him,  "  Polycletus  made  men  as  they  seem  to  be, 
but  I  make  them  as  they  ought  to  be."  He  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  great  naturalistic  sculptor.  Pliny  says  that 
he  made  the  heads  of  his  statues  smaller  than  the  ancients 
and  defined  the  hair  especially,  making  the  bodies  more 
slender  and  sinewy,  by  which  the  height  of  the  figure  seemed 
greater.  The  "Apoxyomenos  "  (Fig.  132)  may  be  regarded  as  a 
good  example  of  his  work  ;  this  however  was  in  bronze  and  so 
probably  were  all  of  his  statues.  The  taste  for  colossal  statues 
was  met  by  many  from  his  hand,  such  as  the  Hercules  of 
Tarentum  and  a  Colossal  Zeus,  besides  many  others,  to  the 
number  of  several  hundred,  as  related  by  Pliny  and  Pausanias. 
The  famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes  has  also  been  attributed  to 
him,  though  more  probably  it  was  the  work  of  his  pupil 
Chares.  His  great  bronze  equestrian  group  of  Alexander  and 
the  horsemen  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus,  was 
brought  to  Borne  by  Metellus  (146  B.  C.)  to  be  shown  in  his 
triumph.  Such  was  the  general  influence  of  Lysippus  under 
the  high  patronage  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  only  per- 
mitted him  and  Apelles  the  painter  to  represent  him,  that  the 
style  which  then  prevailed  and  retained  its  influence  until  the 
time  of  Augustus  has  been  generally  called  '•  Macedonian." 

A  peculiar  treatment  of  the  hair  in  two  strong  rising  curls 
above  the  center  of  the  forehead  is  characteristic  of  this 
period.  This  arose  from  Lysippus  having  in  his  portrait  busts 
and  statues  adhered  so  closely  to  this  peculiarity  in  Alex- 
ander. It  was  to  flatter  Alexander  that  he  gave  this  pecul- 
iarity to  all  his  heroic  figures  and  to  the  gods,  and  it  is  seen 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF   1'HIDIAS. 


Ill 


in  the  head  of  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  as  on  the  coins,  and 
again  in  the  heads  of  the  colossal  marble  figures  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  on  Monte  Cavallo,  at  Rome,  which — though  bearing 
the  names  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles,  absurdly  carved  upon 
the  pedestals  in  letters 
of  a  kind  not  used  be- 
fore the  time  of  Sixtus 
V. — are  fine  works,  not 
of  very  high  preten- 
sions, but  probably 
copies  from  bronze  stat- 
ues of  the  Macedonian 
period. 

In  the  frieze  around 
the  Choragic  monument 
of  Lysicrates  at  Athens, 
sculptured  in  the  year 
334  B.  C.,  the  subject 
of  which  is  Dionysus 
transforming  the  Tyr- 
rhenian  pirates  into  dol- 
phins,  a  certain  softness 
in  the  forms  and  pic- 
turesque  action  suggests 
the  inquiry  whether  the 
reliefs  may  not  be  the 
work  of  Praxiteles,  to 
whom  as  regards  date 
they  might  be  attribut- 
able. They  are  certainly 
not  like  the  work  of 
Lysippus  (Fig.  127). 

The  discovery  at  Eph- 
esus  by  Mr.  Wood  in 
1S73,  of  the  ruins  and 
sculptured  columns  of  the  famous  temple  of  Diana,  built 
B.  C.  323,  brought  to  light  the  "sculptured  columns"  (page 
34)  described  by  Pliny.  The  lower  drum  of  one,  six  feet  in 
diameter,  is  now  in  the  Elgin  Room  of  the  British  Museum. 
Six  figures  on  this  are  full  life  size  in  mezzo-relievo,  and  in 


112 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


the  Hermes  and  the  winged  Thanatos  the  style  of  Lysippus 
may,  it  is  thought,  be  recognized.  That  Scopas  sculptured  one 
of  the  columns  is  related  by  Pliny,  but  that  any  of  these 
fragments  in  the  Museum  are  to  be  attributed  to  him  is  not  at 

present  decided.  Pliny  gives 
the  number  of  columns  as 
127,  each  the  gift  of  a  king, 
and  says  that  thirty-six  of 
them  were  celatce,  that  is, 
"sculptured  in  relief"; 
their  height  was  60  Roman 
feet.  Mr.  Newton  remarks 
that  the  surface  of  some  of 
the  square  bases,  which  are 
sculptured  in  high  relief, 
show  the  marks  of  a  column 
having  rested,  and  that  "  we 
thus  have  the  combination 
of  a  richly  sculptured  shaft 
resting  on  a  richly  sculptured 

^ 

fi 


square  pedestal,  a  combi- 
nation which  may  have  been 
the  prototype  of  Trajan's  and 
other  triumphal  columns." 
The  pediments  of  this  temple 
no  doubt  were  filled  with 
statues,  as  in  other  instances, 
but  no  one  has  succeeded  in 
finding  any  fragments  be- 
longing to  them,  if  they  ever 
existed.  The  temple,  which, 
as  "The  Artemisium,"  was 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  ancient 
world,  in  Roman  times  had 
become  the  ffepository  of  an 
immense  treasure  of  works 
of  art  of  all  kinds,  none  of  which  have  been,  as  yet  discov- 
ered. Goths  burned  and  plundered  the  temple  in  the  year 
A.  D.  262. 


THE  SUCCESSORS  OF   PHIDIAS.  113 

Other  Schools. 

Rhodes  had  unquestionable  right  to  give  her  name  to  a 
school  of  sculpture,  both  from  the  great  antiquity  of  the  origin 
of  the  culture  of  the  arts  in  the  island  and  from -the  number 
(more  than  one  hundred)  of  the  colossal  statues  in  bronze, 
of  the  Sun  God,  at  the  head  of  which  stood  the  great  Colossus 
by  Chares,  who  was  the  most  renowned  pupil  of  Lysippus. 

The  Rhodian  school  is  also  distinguished  by  those  remarkable 
examples  of  sculpture  in  marble  of  large  groups  of  figures — 
the  Toro  Farnese  (Fig.  141)  and  the  Laocoon  (Fig.  138).  In 
these  works — which  are  described  among  the  examples — there 
is  the  same  feeling  for  display  of  artistic  accomplishment  that 
has  been  noticed  as  characteristic  of  the  Macedonian  age, 
with  that  effort  at  the  pathetic,  especially  in  the  Laocoon, 
which  belongs  to  the  finer  style  of  the  later  schools,  as  dis- 
played in  the  works  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles,  as  seen  in 
the  Niobe  figures  and  others. 

At  Pergainus,  another  school  allied  in  style  to  that  of 
Ephesus  arose,  of  which  the  chief  sculptor  was  Pyromachus, 
who,  according  to  Pliny,  flourished  in  the  120th  Olympiad, 
B.  C.  300—298,  with  Eutychides,  Dahippus,  Cephisodotus,  and 
Timarchus.  Pliny  also  mentions  a  great  work  by  many 
artists  (artifices)  representing  the  battles  of  Attalus  against 
the  Gauls,  in  which  Pyromachus,  Isigonus,  Stratonicus,  and 
Antigonus  were  engaged  (lib.  xxxv.  c.  8).  Pergamus  was 
raised  to  the  highest  importance  under  Attalus  (B.  C.  247 — 
197)  and  Eumenes  IL,  his  successor,  who  adorned  it  with 
many  fine  buildings  and  founded  the  famous  library.  A 
statue  of  ^Esculapius  by  Pyromachus  wras  a  work  of  some 
note  in  the  splendid  temple  at  Pergamus  and  is  to  be  seen 
on  the  coins  of  that  city.  It  is  also  conjectured  that  the  well- 
known  "  Dying  Gladiator"  and  the  group  of  Ptetus  and  Arria 
of  the  Villa  Ludovisi  are  copies  of  bronzes  by  Pyromachus 
(Scharf).  However  this  may  be,  the  subjects  are  evidently 
taken  from  scenes  that  occurred  at  this  time  and  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  Gauls,  who  constantly  slew  themselves  and 
their  wives  and  children  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of 
their  conquerors.  The  vigorous  naturalistic  style  of  these 
statues,  surpassing  anything  of  preceding  schools  in  the 
etFort  at  expression,  may  be  taken  as  characteristic  of  the 


114 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


school  of  Pergamus,  then  completely  under  Roman  influence. 

But  all  question  as  to  the  nature  of  .the  sculptures  was  set 
at  rest  by  the  discovery  of  many  large  works  in  high  relief  by 
the  German  expedition  at  Pergamus  in  1875.  These  are 
now  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin.  They  are  of  almost  colossal 
proportions,  representing,  as  Pliny  described,  the  wars  of 
Attalus  and  the  battles  with  the  Giants.  In  these  the 
nude  figures  especially  show  the  effort  to  display  artistic 
ability  and  great  energy  in  the  action.  In  these  points  there 
is  observable  a  connection  with  the  well-known  and  very 
striking  example  of  sculpture  of  this  order — the  "Fighting 
Gladiator,"  or  more  properly  the  Warrior  of  Agasias,  who,  as 
is  certain  from  the  inscription  on  his  work,  was  an  Ephesian. 

The  equally  renowned  statue  of  the  "Apollo  Belvedere," 
finely  conceived  and  admirably  modeled  as  it  undoubtedly 
is,  bears  the  stamp  of  artistic  display  which  removes  it 
from  the  style  of  the  great  classic  works  of  sculpture. 


FIG.  120.— FIGURE  o>r  THE  FRIEZE  OF  THE  MONUMENT  OF  LYSICRATES. 
Tftought  to  Resemble  the  Theseus  of  the  Parthenon. 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

GREEK   SCULPTURE. 

Examples — A  rrangcd  Alphabetically. 
[Abbreviations:  m.,  marble  ;  b.,  bronze.] 

AMAZON,  m  ;  6  feet,  5  inches,  Berlin.  This  claims  to  be  a 
copy  of  the  bronze  of  Polycletus  and  one  of  the  five  made 
in  competition  for  the  Temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  by 
Polycletus,  Phidias,  Cresilas,  Cydon,  and  Phradmon.  At 
least  seven  are  known  besides  this  :  two  in  the  Vatican,  one  of 
which,  the  Mattel  statue,  also  claims  to  be  after  that  of 
Polycletus  ;  two  in  the  Capitol,  one  in  the  Louvre,  one  in 
Vienna  Museum,  and  one  at  Petworth  House.  They  all  bear 
some  resemblance  one  to  the  other,  but  are  different,  some 
being  wounded.  The  Vatican  statue  distinguished  as  the 
"Mattel  Amazon,"  is  loosening  her  bow,  with  the  right 
hand  over  the  head,  a  quiver  at  her  left  side,  a  shield  by 
the  right  leg  on  the  tree-trunk,  the  battle-ax,  and  a  helmet 
at  her  feet.  On  the  left  ankle  is  a  spur,  as  in  the  Berlin  figure. 
The  other  "Amazon"  of  the  Vatican  is  wounded,  has  the 
right  arm  raised  over  the  head,  while  the  left  falls  by  her  side. 
A  very  fine  head  of  an  Amazon  is  No.  150,  British  Museum. 

APOLLO  BELVEDERE.  Heroic  size  ;  m.  Carrara.  Height,  7 
feet,  2  inches.  Vatican.  Once  thought  to  be  a  repetition  in  mar- 
ble of  a  bronze,  by  Calamis,  but  now  considered  to  be  of  the  time 
of  Lysippus.  Being  of  Carrara  marble,  it  was  most  probably 
executed  at  Rome.  Formerly  considered  to  be  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  antique  statues,  but  since  placed  in  an  inferior  rank  in 
art.  It  may  represent  Apollo  either  as  the  destroyer  of  the 
Python  and  protector  from  evil  or,  as  Pausanias  described 
the  statue  of  Apollo  by  Calamis,  as  the  protector  after  the 


116 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


FIG.  130.— WOUNDED  AMAZON. 

AT.    Berlin  Museum.    Differs  from    the 

others  chiefly  in  having  no  quiver  or 

shield,  and  the  left  arm  supported 

on  a  pillar.     Much  restored. 


plague  had  left  Athens,  hav- 
ing the  serpent,  the  emblem 
of  the  healing  art,  twining 
around  the  Delian  olive  (lib. 
i.  p.  6,  20).  Visconti  took 
this  view,  while  Winckel- 
mann  thought  he  had  just 
discharged  the  arrow  that 
killed  the  Python.  The. 
small  snake  upon  the  trunk, 
however,  would  not  warrant 
the  latter  opinion  and  evi- 
dently refers  to  the  healing 
power  of  the  god,  as  it  does 
in  statues  of  .ZEsculapius.  A 
bronze  statuette  in  Count 
Stroganoff' s  collection  has 
the  aegis  in  the  left  hand  as 
in  the  figure,  No.  131. 

It  was  found  at  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century  in 
the  ruins  at  Antium  where 
the  "Gladiator"  or  "War- 
rior" of  Agasias  was.  It 
was  purchased  by  the  Cardi- 
nal delle  Rovere,  afterwards 
Julius  II.,  being  one  of  the 
first  works'  of  the  Vatican 
collection. 

Restorations. — The  entire 
right  forearm  and  left  hand 
were  supplied  by  Montorsoli 
when  employed  by  Clement 
VII.  Therefore  it  is  entirely 
a  matter  of  conjecture 
whether  the  original  statue 
in  bronze  held  a  bow  or  the 
a?gis  or  simply  had  the  hand 
extended. 

APOXYOMEXOS.      Heroic ; 


EXAMPLES. 


117 


m.  Greek.  Height,  6  feet,  5J  inches.  Vatican.  This  fine 
statue  is  an  example  of  the  school  of  Lysippus  and  considered 
to  be  taken  from  the  famous  bronze  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  re- 


FK;.  l.'U.— APOLI.O  BKLYEDERK. 
In  the  Vaticttn.     The  left  hand  restored  in  this  cut  us  holding  the  crgis. 

moved  by  Tiberius  from  the  baths  of  Agrippa  to  his  own  pal- 
ace, and  restored  in  consequence  of  the  clamor  of  the  people. 
It  is  also  remarkable  as  representing  an  athlete  using  the 


118 


GKEKK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


strigil.     The  die  held  in  the  right  hand  is  an  addition  of  the 

modern  restorer. 

This  copy  of  the  celebrated  statue  was  found  in  the  Viccolo 

della  Palme  in  the  Tras- 
tevere,  Rome,  in  1849, 
and,  though  in  many 
pieces,  nearly  complete. 

Restorations.— Part  o  f 
the  nose,  and  the  fingers 
of  the  right  hand  with 
the  die. 

DIADUMENOS.  Life 
sizejm.  There  are  two  Di- 
adumeni  in  the  British 
Museum  ;  this  one  known 
as  the  Farnese  statue  and 
the  other  as  the  Vaison 
statue,  from  having  been 
found  at  that  place  in 
France.  Both  are  sup- 
posed to  be  copies  of  the 
statues  by  Polycletus  re- 
ferred to  by  Pliny  (lib. 
xxxiv.  c.  8),  one  of  a 
young  man — "  Diadu- 
menum  fecit  vnolliter  ju- 
vencm'' — the  other  of  a 
youth  of  manly  form 
"  idem  et  Doryphorum 
viriliter  puerum."  This 
Farnese  statue  may  be 
the  soft  and  graceful  fig- 
ure, the  Vaison  statue, 
the  strong,  square-built, 
young  athlete.  The  last 
named  is  also  defective 
in  the  left  hand  and  the 
fillet.  Both  rest  with  one 
leg  at  ease,  an  attitude 


FIG.  132.— THE  APOXYOMEXOS. 
Vatican.    Athlete  using-  the  Strigil. 


peculiar    to   statues    by 


EXAMPLES. 


119 


Polycletus  and  seen  in  the  Doryphorus  at  Naples. 

DIANA  with  the  Stag.    Heroic,  in.  Parian  ;  height  6  feet,  7 
inches.     Louvre.     It  is  not  known  where  or  when  this  statue 
was  found  ;  it  has  been  in  France 
a  long  time,  and  was  probably 
one  of  the  184  that  Primaticcio 
brought  from  Rome  for  Francis 
II.     It  was  once  at  Versailles, 
hence  called   "Diane    de  Ver- 
sailles," also  "  Diane  &  la  Biche." 

Restorations. — B  arthfilemy 
Prieur  is  said  to  have  done  a 
little  too  much  to  the  surface,  the 
feet  having  got  something  of  the 
style  of  Germain  Pilonand  Prieur 
(Cfarac}.  The  left  arm  is  by  the 
sculptor  Lange  of  Toulouse,  done 
in  the  Louvre  before  1809.  Res- 
torations.— The  nose,  ears,  part 
of  neck,  right  hand,  half  of  fore- 
arm; left,  with  arm  to  the  deltoid; 
right  foot  and  upper  part  of  leg. 
Stag,  nearly  all. 

A  work  of  the  first  century,  A. 
D.,  if  not  by  the  same  sculptor, 
probably  of  the  same  period  as 
the  Apollo  Belvedere  (M.  Froh- 
iier,  Louvre  Cat.).  Many  repe- 
titions exist,  one  at  Holkham. 

DISCOBOLUS  OF  MYRON.  Above 
life  size  ;  marble  ;  height,  5  feet, 
8  inches.  British  Museum. 

There  are  no  less  than  five 
statues  like  this,  all  copies  of  the 
famous  bronze  by  Myron,  which 
is  described  by  Quintilian  (A.  D. 
40)  and  afterwards  by  Luciaii 
(A.  D.  120),  and  copied  on 

gems  and  coins  still  in  existence.   Jiri(ish  3fiwpMin.    ^  lcft  arm  and 
A    small   bronze    in    w  h  i  c  h  shoulder  io.it. 


FIG.  133.— THE  DIADCMEXOS. 


120 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


the  head  is  turned   back  is  in   the  Munich   Museum. 

Myron  was  born  about  480  B.  C.  ;  he  was  a  pupil  of  Ageladas 
of  Argos  and  fellow-student  with  Polycletus  and  contem- 
porary with  Phidias.  He  became  celebrated  about  431  B.  C. 
for  his  works  in  bronze,  especially  for  his  "  Cow  lowing,  with 

her  calf,"  which  stood 
in  the  great  square  of 
Athens  in  the  time  of 
Cicero. 

The  action  and  mo- 
tive of  the  figure  are 
readily  understood, 
and  could  not  be  more 
concisely  described 
than  in  the  words  of 
Lucian,  who  saw  it  at 
Athens.  "  The  discus- 
player  bending  down 
as  if  about  to  throw, 
and  looking  back 
toward  the  hand  that 
holds  the  discus,  with 
one  knee  bent  as  if 
prepared  to  rise  after 
the  cast.  That  is  the 
Discobolus,  the  work  of 
Myron." 

FAUX  OF  THE  CAPI- 
TOL. Life  size;  m.  Pen- 

telic.  Height,  5  feet,  7£ 

FIG.  131.— DIANA  WITH  THE  STAG  OF  BRAZEN  inches.  Capitol,  Rome. 
FEET  (Ceryneia).  Often  called  the  "Faun 

in  the  Louvre.  (or  Satyr)   of  Praxite- 

les,"  being  thought  to  be  a  copy  of  the  bronze  so  far-famed 
that  it  was  spoken  of  at  the  time  as  "famous."  It  is  the  "  Mar- 
ble Faun  "  of  Hawthorne's  romance.  The  folds  of  the  skin 
sometimes  erroneously  called  the  ncbris,  but  which  is  that 
of  the  panther,  indicate  the  sharper  forms  which  would  be 
chosen  by  an  artist  working  in  bronze.  The  grace  of  line  in 
the  figure,  amounting  to  what  would  be  termed  elegance,  and 


EXAMPLES. 


121 


the  expression  of  the  head  mark  the  style  as  that  of  the  later 
Athenian  sculptors. 

THE  DYING  GLADIATOR.    Above  life  size,  m.     Height  33 
inches,  length,  G6  inches.   In  the  Museum  of  the  Capitol,  Rome. 


FIG.  135.— THE  DISCOBOLUS.    British  Musnun. 

Though  long  called  "The  Dying  Gladiator"  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  "  Fighting  Gladiator,"  this  fine  statue  is  now  more 
properly  called  a  "Dying  Gaul,"  or  a  "Gaulish  Herald," 


122 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE   AND  SCULPTURE. 


who  has  been  mortally  wounded  or  may  have  slain  himself. 

The  large  horn  on  the  ground,  within  which  he  lies  as  though 

it  had  slipped  off  his 
shoulders,  has  been  con- 
sidered to  be  that  carried 
by  heralds.  The  twisted 
ring  of  metal  around  the 
neck  is  a  torque  such  as 
was  worn  by  the  Gauls. 
The  expression  of  the 
face  and  the  whole  fig- 
ure is  finely  portrayed, 
and  with  strong  realis- 
tic truth,  very  charac- 
teristic of  the  Pergamus 
school.  It  was  found  in 
the  ruins  of  the  Garden 
of  Sallust  in  1770  and 
was  once  in  the  gallery 
'of  the  Villa  Ludovisi, 
Rome.  It  was  pur- 
chased by  Clement  XII. 
arid  was  taken  to  Paris 
among  the  spoils  of 
Napoleon.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be  a  work  of 
the  time  of  Hadrian. 

THE  LAOCOOX.  He- 
roic ;  Grechetto  marble ; 
height,  5  feet,  10  inches. 
In  the  Vatican,  Rome. 
This  fine  group  was 
found  in  1506  in  the 
Baths  of  Titus  where 
Pliny  said  it  was  placed 
—not  in  a  vineyard  on 
the  Esquiline  Hill  as 
stated  by  F.  di  Sangallo. 

FIG.  136.— FAUX  OF  PRAXITELES.  This  was  in  the   ponti- 

Capitol,  Rome.  ficate  of  Julius  II.  while 


EXAMPLES. 


123 


Michelangelo  was  engaged  upon  his  great  works  at  the 
Vatican.  That  great  sculptor  is  said  to  have  called  it  "a 
wonder  of  art."  Pliny  speaks  of  its  being  in  the  palace 
of  the  Emperor  Titus  (lib.  xxxvi.  c.  5).  Michelangelo,  who 
with  Christoforo  Romano  was  directed  to  examine  it,  pointed 
out  that  it  was  not  of  one  block,  but  of  three, — one  for  the  son 
on  the  left,  another  for  the  figure  of  Laocoon  to  the  knees,  and 
the  third  for  the  rest  of  the  group.  It  has,  however,  been 
since  found  to  be  made  of  six  blocks.  When  dug  up,  the  right 
arm  of  Laocoon  was  gone  as  well  as  the  shoulder  and  the 


FIG.  137.— THE  DYING  GLADIATOR. 
In  the  Capitoline  Museum,  Rome. 

pectoral  muscle ;  the  right  arm  and  foot  of  the  younger  son 
and  the  same  parts  of  the  elder  were  also  broken  off  and  lost. 
Skillful  restorations  were  made  by  different  Italian  sculptors. 

Lord  Macaulay  has  pronounced  the  essay  on  Laocoon  by  the 
German  critic  Lessing  to  be  the  greatest  critical  work  of 
modern  literature. 

MINEHVA — THE  PAL.L.AS  OF  THE  VATICAN.  Heroic,  draped  ; 
m.  Parian.  Height,  6  feet,  10  inches.  This  statue  has  been 
restored  with  the  attributes  of  "  Minerva  Medica,"  the  serpent 
raising  its  head  by  her  side,  a  spear  in  her  right  hand,  the 
arms,  the  Corinthian  helmet  and  jegis,  with  mantle  over  the 
shoulders.  It  was  found  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  Medica 
on  the  Ksquiline,  Rome. 


124 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


This  statue  was  for  a  long  time  in  the  possession  of  the 
Giustiniani  family  and  afterwards  passed  into  the  collection  of 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  from  whom  it  was  eventually  purchased 
by  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  added  to  the  Gallery  of  the  Vatican. 


FIG.  138.— LAOCOON  AND  HIS  SONS. 

'Jlie  work  of  the  Rhodians,  Agesander,  Athenodorus,  and  Polydorus. 

In  the   Vatican.    But  with  the  arm  as  restored  by  Montorsoli. 

The  right  arms  and  legs  of  the  sons  restored  by 

Cornacchini. 

It  represents  the  goddess  as  the  beneficent  protector  and 
preserver  of  health  by  her  wisdom.  The  drapery  is  an  espe- 
cially good  example  of  the  grave  dignity  given  to  the  figure 
by  the  toga  so  admirably  sculptured. 


EXAMPLES. 


125 


The  form  of  the  helmet  is  not  that  of  the  Athene  of  Phidias, 
seen  on  the  coins  of  Athens,  but  that  found  on  the  coins  of 
Corinth. 

Restorations. — Right  arm  and  hand  with   spear   and   the 
serpent,  emblem  of  health  and  long 
life,  as   seen   in   statues  of  ^Escu- 
lapius. 

THE  NIOBE  GROUP  — 14  figures. 
Life  size ;  m.  Florence  Gallery. 
A  very  celebrated  group  of  statues, 
which  once  adorned  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Sosianus  at  Rome.  They 
were  referred  to  both  by  Horace  and 
Pliny  as  the  work  either  of  Scopas 
or  Praxiteles. 

Probably  none  of  the  original  fig- 
ures remain  ;  those  that  are  at  Flor- 
ence are  only  a  part  of  the  copies 
made,  for  some  do  not  belong  to  the 
subject  and  have  merely  been  sup- 
plied to  make  up  the  number.  The 
pedagogue  and  son  are  not  at  Flor- 
ence, but  in  the  Louvre,  and  are  a 
very  inferior  group  found  at  Soissons 
in  France. 

The  head  of  Xiobe  is  almost  pro- 
verbial as  an  example  of  the  pathetic 
(Fig.  140).  It  was  the  favorite  study 
of  Guido,  as  is  seen  in  his  pictures. 

There  is  a  head  of  Niobe  in  Lord 
Yarborough's  collection  which  is 
considered  to  be  finer  than  that  of 
the  statue. 

In  the  Vatican  there  are  two  "  Daughters  of  Niobe"  from 
another  group.  In  the  Munich  Museum  is  a  very  fine  nude 
kneeling  figure  in  Parian  marble  much  injured,  the  arms 
and  head  lost,  of  the  son  of  Niobe  looking  up,  which  is  called 
"  Jlioneus."  There  is  also  one  of  the  sous  lying  on  the  ground. 
In  the  Capitol  Museum,  Rome,  there  is  one  of  the  kneeling 
sons. 


FIG.  139.— THE  MINERVA 
THE  VATICAN. 


FIG.  140.— NIOBE  AND  HER  CHILDREN.    (Center  Group.) 
Now  in  the  Florence  Gallery. 


EXAMPLES.  127 

Most  of  these  statues  were  discovered  before  1583,  at  Rome, 
and  placed  in  the  Villa  Medici,  having  been  obtained  by 
the  Medici  family,  in  whose  palace  they  were  till  Pierre 
Leopold  had  them  removed  to  Florence  in  1776. 

It  is  not  decided  whether  the  statues  belong  to  the  same 
group  and  whether  they  formed;  a  pedimental  or  merely  a 
semi-circular  arrangement.  Also  it  is  a  question  whether 
Apollo  and  Artemis  did  not  belong  to  the  group  ;  and  there  is 
in  the  British  Museum  a  bas-relief  of  the  subject  with  those 
deities. 

Restorations. — These  are  so  very  numerous  in  arms,  hands, 
feet,  and  some  legs  that  it  is  impossible  to  name  them  all. 

TORO  FARNESE.  Colossal  group  ;  m.  Grechetto.  Height,  12 
feet,  4  inches,  on  square  base.  Naples  Museum.  By  Apollo- 
nius  and  Tauriscus  of  Rhodes.  This  is  the  group  described 
by  Pliny,  representing  Dirk6  being  tied  to  a  bull  by  Amphion 
and  Zethus,  the  sons  of  Aiitiope,  who  thus  revenged  the 
insult  of  their  mother,  whose  husband,  Lycus  king  of  Thebes, 
had  forsaken  her  for  Dirke".  Aiitiope,  according  to  some 
versions  of  the  story,  interposed  to  save  her  rival,  but  accord- 
ing to  others  Dirk6  was  dragged  about  by  the  bull  till  she 
was  dead  and  was  then  thrown  into  a  well,  which  to  this  day 
is  called  the  well  of  Dirk6. 

So  much  that  is  expressive  in  the  heads  and  figures  not 
being  due  to  the  ancient  sculptor,  but  to  the  restorer  Bianchi 
under  the  direction  of  Michelangelo,  the  group  is  chiefly  valu- 
able as  an  example  of  the  ambitious  style  of  colossal  work 
which  characterized  the  later  Rhodian  school  after  the  time  of 
Lysippus,  when  it  was  brought  to  the  extreme  by  Chares 
in  his  Colossus.  The  lyre  hung  upon  the  tree  and  the  Pandean 
pipes  are  in  allusion  to  Amphion's  skill  in  music  :  "  Amphion 
by  his  singing  moved  the  stones "  (Horace).  The  wild 
animals,  with  sheep  and  oxen  carved  on  the  base,  describe  the 
pastoral  life  led  by  the  sons  of  Lycus  on  Mount  Cithaeroii 
when  expelled  by  him  with  their  mother. 

Pliny  tells  us  that  this  grand  work  was  brought  from 
Rhodes  to  Rome  and  that  it  was  cut  out  of  a  single  block 
of  Greek  marble  and  that  Asinius  Pollio  purchased  it  in  the 
time  of  Augustus.  It  was  much  broken  and  some  parts 
entirely  gone — as  the  head  of  the  bull,  for  example.  It  was 


128 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AND  SCULPTURE. 


placed  in  the  court  of  the  Farnese  Palace,  where  Michelangelo 
superintended  the  restorations  by  Giov.  Battista  Bianchi.  In 
1786  it  was  removed  to  Naples  and  suffered  further  injuries 
in  the  transport,  which  had  to  be  restored  ;  it  was  then  placed 


FIG.  141.— TOKO  FARNESE. 
In  the  Naples  Museum. 

in  the  Villa  Reale  and  after  remaining  exposed  to  the  weather 
for  many  years  it  was  removed  to  the   Royal  Museum  by 
order  of  Francis  I. 
A  cast  of  this  fine  work  is  in  the  Crystal  Palace. 


EXAMPLES. 


129 


THE  TORSO  BELVEDERE.  Heroic  ;  m.  Pentelic.  Height  5 
feet  1J  inches.  Vatican.  By  Apollonius,  about  336  B.  C. 
The  celebrated  torso  is  often  called  after  Michelangelo  because 
he  studied  it  so  profoundly  and  made  it  his  great  example 
for  sculptors.  Flaxman  borrowed  it  for  one  of  his  com- 
positions of  the  Apotheosis  of  Hercules.  That  it  is  a  Hercules 
is  shown  by  the  remains  of  the  Nemaean  lion's  skin  on  the 
thigh  and  the  rock.  On  the  rock  is  cut  the  name  of  the 
sculptor  who  was  careful 
to  show  that  he  was  an 
Athenian. 

Venus  of  the  Capitol. 
Heroic;  m.  Parian.  Height, 
6  2-10  feet.  This  statue  has 
a  nobler  character  in  the 
form  and  is  altogether  a  more 
complete  work  than  the 
"  Medici  Venus"  ;  it  is  also 
much  larger.  It  has  the 
special  interest  of  being 
nearly  as  perfect  as  the 
ancient  sculptor  left  it. 
Flaxman  said,  "  an  example 
of  more  dignified  and  less 
insinuating  beauty  than  the 
'Venus  de'  Medici,'  and  cer- 
tainly a  copy  from  one  of 
the  three  enumerated  by 
Pliny  among  the  works  of 
Praxiteles." 

JZcstorationx. — Only  the  tip 
of  the  nose  and  two  of  the 
fingers. 

It  was  found  at  Home 
toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  near  the 
"  Suburra  di  monti." 

VENTS  DE'  MEDICI.     Life  si/.t 


FIG 


112.— THE  TORSO  BELVEDERE. 
In  the  Vatican. 

m.     Parian.     Height,  4  feet, 


11J  indies.     Florence,  in  the  Tribune  of  the  Uln/.i  ;  by  Cleo- 
nienes  of  Athens. 


130 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  AND   SCULPTURE. 


In  allusion  to  the  birth  of  the  goddess  from  the  foam  of  the 
sea,  is  the  dolphin,  on  whose  back  are  sporting  the  two  boy 
deities,  Eros  and  Himeros.  The  hair  is  bound  up  as  the  Horse 

were  said  to  have  done  it.  The 
ears  are  pierced  and  no  doubt 
once  had  ear-rings,  and  on  the 
left  arm  is  the  mark  of  an  arm- 
let. 

It  was  found  in  the  Forum  of 
Octavia  or  Hadrian:s  Villa  at 
Tivoli  about  1680,  with  other 
beautiful .  statues,  among  which 
was  the  knife-sharpener,  "L'Ar- 
rotino." 

It  was  brought  to  Florence  in 
the  Pontificate  of  Innocent  XI., 
in  the  reign  of  Cosmo  III.  di 
Medici,  and  placed  in  the  gardens 
of  the  Medici  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  was  placed  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Uffizi  in  1680. 

Restorations. — It  was  broken 
into  thirteen  pieces  ;  the  head 
was  off,  the  trunk  injured,  the 
thighs  broken,  the  feet,  the  arms, 
and  hands  almost  entirely  gone. 
Fortunately  the  fractures  were  so 
regular  that  the  pieces  were  easily 
joined  with  the  exception  of  some 
parts  in  the  trunk.  The  right 
arm  and  hand  and  the  left  from 
the  elbow  were  quite  lost,  and 
these  were  supplied  by  Bernini. 
This  accounts  for  some  of  the 

FIG.  143.— VENUS.  affectations  shown  in  the  position 

Resembling  the  statue  in  the  Cap-  of  the  arms  and    hands.    These 
itoiine  Museum,  Rome.          are  not  at  all  of  the  antique  char- 
acter, and  the   statue    is   much 

grander  without  them,  as  indeed  it  should  always  be  when 
studied   from.     The  plinth  is  also  modern,  the  ancient  one 


KXAMPLiES. 


131 


having  been  too  much  broken   to  be  used.      The  Greek  in- 
scription was  accurately  copied. 

"  Cleomenes,  sou  of  Apollodoros  the  Athenian,  did  it."  He 
is  spoken  of  by  Pliny  as  a  sculptor  of  the  highest  repute  for 
his  female  figures.  The  son  of  this  sculptor  is  thought  to 
be  he  whose  name  is  cut  upon  the  tortoise  at  the  foot  of  the 
statue  called  Germanicus  in  the  Louvre,  No.  184. 

It  is  thought  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  famous  Venus 
of  Praxiteles,  the  first  representing  the 
goddess  nude,  of  which  some  idea  is  ob- 
tained from  the  coins  of  the  time  of 
Caracalla  and  Plautilla.  Old  copies  in 
marble  of  the  Venus  of  Cnidus  are  in  the 
Vatican,  and  an  especially  good  one  in 
theGlyptothek  at  Munich.  An  antique 
marble  copy  of  the  "  Medici  Venus  "in 
the  Louvre  (156)  has  the  arms,  which  are 
modern,  slightly  different  from  Ber- 
nini's in  the  Florence  statue.  The  left 
foot  and  some  toes  of  the  right  are  also 
new.  This  belonged  to  the  Campana 
collection,  and  was  found  at  Porto  d' Anzo 
(Antium). 

A  statue  in  the  Dresden  Museum  closely 
resembles  the  "Medici  Venus,"  the 
legs  however  being  lost  from  about  half 
of  the  thighs.  A  small  bronze  in  the 
British  Museum  is  in  this  attitude. 

VENUS  OF  MILO  or  MELOS,  the  name 
of  the  island  in  which  it  was  found. 
( Venus  Victrix.)  A  half-draped  heroic- 
size  statue,  the  arms  and  left  foot  broken 
off.  Marble.  Height,  6  feet,  8  inches. 
In  the  Louvre,  No.  136.  Corallitic  marble,  like  ivory  in  color, 
and  very  close  in  the  grain. 

The  name  of  the  sculptor  is  not  known,  but  this  beautiful 
statue  is  considered  by  Clarac  to  be  of  the  school  of  Praxiteles. 
But  being  partly  draped  some  think  it  to  be  of  an  earlier  time. 
Others  have  attributed  it  to  Alcumenes  and  to  Agesander.  By 
Overbeck  it  is  considered  to  be  of  as  late  a  time  as  that 


FIG.  144. — VENUS  DK' 

MEDICI. 

In  the  Tribune  of  the 
1'ffl.zi  Gallery. 


FIG.  143.— VENUS  OF  MELOS. 
In  the  Louvre.     The  left  foot  added. 


EXAMPLES. 


133 


of  Augustus.  Mr.  Newton  would  place  it  about  250  B.  C. 
It  was  found  in  1820  by  a  Greek  peasant  in  getting  up  the 
roots  of  a  tree,  when  the  whole  fell  through  into  a  hollow 
place  which  proved  to  be  a  tomb  in  the  rock.  The  bust 
was  first  found,  and  then  the  trunk  in  two  parts,  separated 
where  the  drapery  begins,  at  the  hips ;  but  the  head  was 
not  separate,  being  perfect  with  the  exception  of  the  nose  ;  the 
left  foot  was  quite  lost.  A  hand  holding  an  apple  was  found. 


FIG.  146.— THE  WRESTLERS. 
In  the  Tribune  of  the  Uffizi. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  the  attitude  suggests  that  some 
object  was  held  resting  on  the  knee,  such  as  a  shield.  A 
bronze  statue  in  a  somewhat  similar  attitude,  now  in  the 
Louvre,  is  a  winged  figure  of  Victory  holding  a  shield  and  in- 
scribing it,  which  was  found  at  Brescia  about  twenty  years 
ago.  There  is  also  a  resemblance  in  attitude  to  the  Venus 
of  Capua  in  the  Naples  Museum.  M.  Frohner  is  of  opinion 


134 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE  AJSD  SCULPTURE. 


that  the  left  hand  with  the  apple  belongs  to  this  statue,  but 
the  right  hand  held  the  drapery.  M.  Claudius  Tarral,  sculp- 
tor, has  made  the  most  accurate  investigation  of  the  fragments 
and  agrees  in  this  opinion.  He  notices  that  certain  irregulari- 
ties in  the  forms  show  that  the  sculptor  was  not  a  copyist  but 
essentially  an  originator,  working  from  his  own  ideal.  .The 
right  cheek  is  rather  larger  than  the  left  and  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  not  exactly  alike  and  the  drapery  is  simple  and 
finely  designed  so  as  to  avoid  all  folds  not  essential  to  the 


FIG.  147.— CASTOR.    Bas-relief  in  British  Museum. 
Said  to  be  Archaic, 

position  and  not  interfering  with  the  harmony  of  the  figure. 

THE  WRESTLERS  Group  ;  m.  Height,  2  feet,  10£  inches  ; 
length,  3  feet,  11  inches.  Florence  Gallery.  A  most  remarka- 
ble group,  although  much  of  it  is  new.  The  immense  diffi- 
culties of  such  a  work  are  surmounted  with  wonderful  skill, 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  figure  shows  a  great  mastery  of  the 
technical  part  of  the  art.  It  represents  a  deadly  struggle,  not 
a  mere  throwing  to  the  ground,  which  was  another  kind 
of  game  ;  in  this  the  upper  figure  is  about  to  deal  a  finishing 
blow  upon  his  victim.  It  is  a  good  example  of  choice  of 


EXAMPLES.  135 

motive.  It  belongs  to  the  later  style  of  Greek  art  and  has 
been  connected  with  the  Niobe  figures  from  having  been  found 
in  the  same  place  and  sold  in  one  lot  with  them  to  the 
Medici  family.  Winckelmann  thought  they  belonged  to  that 
group  in  accordance  with  another  account  of  the  Niobe 
catastrophe,  which  says  that  the  sons  were  wrestling  when 
it  happened.  In  treatment  it  recalls  the  Laocoon  group  and  is 
classed  in  the  School  of  Rhodes  by  some  German  critics. 

Restorations. — The  heads,  the  left  arm  and  foot,  right  leg 
from  knee  of  the  upper  figure,  the  right  arm  and  leg  above 
knee  of  the  lower  are  modern.  It  is,  however,  maintained 
that  they  are  antique  ;  the  head  of  the  conquered  wrestler 
being  retouched  only. 


APPENDIX. 


PAGE  9.  The  statement  that  "  Greek  architecture  did  not  in- 
clude the  arch"  is  qualified  by  the  recent  discovery  of  two 
cases  of  the  arch  in  Greece  which  date  back  to  the  early  period 
here  under  consideration.  These  discoveries  would  make  it 
possible  or  probable  that  the  customary  view  that  Greek  archi- 
tecture ignored  the  arch  may  be  owing  to  the  destruction  of 
the  monuments  in  which  it  occurred.  It  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  the  arch  construction  was  never  employed  in  temples. 
Egyptian  architecture  employed  the  arch  in  utilitarian  con- 
struction, although  it  is  never  found  in  the  temples,  and 
instances  are  known  at  Thebes  dating  to  the  XVIII.  Dynasty 
(about  1800  B.  C.)  of  arches  in  brick  work.  The  arch  was  also 
used  in  Assyria.  These  facts  are  implied  in  the  reference  to 
a  "deliberate  selection"  and  "exclusion"  on  the  part  of  the 
Greeks,  which  occur  on  page  10.  For  a  reference  to  the  arch  as 
found  in  the  theater  at  Sicyon,  seethe  "American  Journal  of 
Archaeology,"  Vol.  V.,  p.  278.  Vaulted  passages  have  also  re- 
cently been  found  in  the  theater  of  Eretria. 

PAGE  10.  "  The  building  was  to  a  much  greater  extent  de- 
signed for  external  than  internal  effect  ....  its  most 
telling  features  and  best  sculpture  were  on  the  exterior."  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that,  as  distinct  from  Egyptian  temples, 
those  of  the  Greeks  had  a  far  more  symmetrical  and  beautiful 
exterior  ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  temple  was  the 
shrine  of  a  statue  which  was — in  the  best  periods  of  Greek 
art — an  object  of  sublime  grandeur,  colossal  size,  great  cost, 


138  APPENDIX. 

and  a  supreme  effort  of  Greek  art  (see  reference  to  these  statues 
of  gold  and  ivory  on  pp.  62,  84,  98).  It  is  not  likely  that  the 
Greeks  were  indifferent  to  the  decorative  interior  effect  of  the 
apartments  intended  to  hold  these  statues. 

PAGE  14.  The  implication  that  the  remains  of  Mycenae  and 
Orchomenos  belong  to  Greek  art  indicates  the  belief  of  all 
students  on  this  point,  down  to  a  very  recent  date.  Since  the 
excavations  of  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  Orcho- 
menos, the  opinion  has  begun  to  gain  ground  that  "Pelasgic" 
art  was  that  of  a  race  entirely  distinct  from  the  Greeks, 
scattered  through  the  archipelago  and  settled  in  various  strong- 
holds on  the  shores  of  Greece — whose  civilization  was  largely 
influenced  by  Egypt  and  preceded  that  of  the  Greeks  by 
several  centuries  at  least.  The  pottery,  metal-work,  jewels, 
etc.,  found  by  Dr.  Schliemann  in  tombs  at  Mycenae  are 
thoroughly  foreign  to  the  style  of  early  Greek  art  and  have 
suggested  and  given  color  to  this  theory  that  they  belong 
to  a  distinct  race,  whose  ascendency  must  have  been  broken 
before  the  Greeks  made  their  appearance  on  the  stage  of 
history — otherwise  traces  of  their  influence  on  early  Greek  art 
would  be  apparent.  Dr.  Schliemann  himself  believed  that 
he  had  discovered  the  remains  of  an  early  Greek  civilization 
but  the  most  recent  summary  on  the  subject  of  his  excava- 
tions takes  a  contrary  view.  See  "  Schliemann' s  Exca- 
vations," by  Schuchardt.  The  objects  found  in  the  tombs  of 
Mycenae  are  in  the  Museum  of  Athens,  and  conclusions  based 
on  their  style  of  art  would  also  cover  the  "Pelasgic"  walls 
of  Mycenae,  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus  "  (which  was  undoubt- 
edly a  tomb)  and  the  Gate  of  the  Lions. 

PAGE  19.  The  "Elgin  Marbles"  were  brought  to  London  in 
1807-1808,  but  they  were  not  purchased  for  the  British  Museum 
until  1816. 

PAGE  22.  "  The  architrave,  it  may  be  assumed,  represents  a 
square  timber  beam."  Egyptian  temples  show  two  lines  of 
stone  beams  corresponding  to  the  Greek  architrave  and  frieze. 
That  this  arrangement,  and  not  that  of  timber  construction, 
explains  the  Greek  entablature  is  proven  by  the  recently 
demonstrated  Egyptian  origin  of  the  triglyphs.  According  to 
Professor  Smith,  "  These  closely  resemble,  and  no  doubt  actu- 
ally represent,  the  ends  of  massive  timber  beams."  This 


APPENDIX.  139 

has  been  the  current  explanation  with  most  writers  on  Greek 
architecture,  but  it  has  been  recently  proven  that  this  is 
erroneous  and  that  the  triglyphs  are  carved  ornaments,  copy- 
ing in  relief  the  three  recessed  and  colored  bunds  which  are 
frequently  found,  in  the  same  arrangement,  on  the  Egyptian 
stone  cornice  which  corresponds  to  the  Greek  frieze.  The  first 
suggestion  to  this  effect  was  long  since  made  by  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson,  author  of  the  "  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,"  in  a  small  work  written  as  a  Guide  to  the 
Egyptian  Department  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 
The  conclusive  proof  has  been  furnished  by  the  German,  Hans 
Auer,  whose  conclusions  are  adopted  by  Dunn,  the  most  recent 
German  authority  on  Greek  architecture. 

PAGE  26.  The  theory  that  the  optical  refinements  of  Greek 
architecture  were  employed  to  correct  optical  illusions  is  that 
generally  followed  by  English  writers,  in  deference  to  the 
authority  of  the  English  architect  Penrose,  who  made  the 
masonry  measurements  (in  1845  and  1846),  by  which  the  pur- 
posed construction  of  these  refinements  was  proven.  This 
theory  is,  however,  not  the  only  one.  The  German  architect 
Hofer  advanced  the  idea  (in  1838),  that  the  curves  were  in- 
tended to  enhance  the  effects  of  dimension  in  the  Greek 
temples,  according  to  the  principles  of  curvilinear  perspective. 
The  same  idea  has  been  advanced  by  Emile  Boutmey  in  his 
"  Philosophic  del'  architecture  en  Grece"  (Paris,  1870).  The 
other  refinements  mentioned,  and  interpreted  as  corrections, 
have  also  been  explained  as  purposed  exaggerations  of  per- 
spective effect — excepting  the  refinement  mentioned  as  treated 
by  Mr.  John  Pennethorne.  This  gentleman  was  the  original 
discoverer  of  the  Greek  horizontal  curves,  which  were  first 
noticed  by  him.  in  1837. 

PAGE  27.  Aside  from  the  colored  patterns  mentioned  it  is 
proven  by  the  remains  of  color  that  the  metope  spaces  and  the 
space  within  the  gable  were  painted  Pompeiian  red.  (This 
would  hold  only  of  the  backgrounds  of  the  sculptured  reliefs.) 
The  triglyph  bands  were  painted  a  low-toned  blue  aud  the 
grooves  between  the  triglyphs  were  Pompeiian  red.  The 
fillet  between  architrave  and  frieze  (Fig.  14,  p.  20)  and  the  cor- 
nices, were  orange  yellow  or  gilded. 

PAGE  28.     "We  must    look    to    some    other    countrv   than 


140  APPENDIX. 

Egypt  for  the  spirit  which  inspired  the  Ionic  order."  This' 
supposition  is  that  of  all  compendious  authorities  up  to  date, 
but  it  has  been  proven  erroneous. 

PAGE  34.  "  Ornaments  borrowed  from  the  Assyrian  honey- 
suckle." See  note  which  follows  for  page  50. 

PAGE  39.     "Assyrian  honeysuckle."     See  note  to  page  50. 

PAGE  43.  "  The  setting  out  (or  spacing),  of  the  different 
columns,  piers,  openings,  etc.,  is  perfectly  exact."  This  state- 
ment is  an  oversight.  The  precision  and  refinement  of  all 
masonry  cutting  have  been  proven  by  Mr.  Penrose  as  stated, 
but  he  has  also  proven  that  there  are  absolutely  no  equidistant 
spacings  in  the  parts  of  a  Greek  temple.  All  the  columns  and 
all  the  triglyphs  are  spaced  at  slightly  irregular  distances. 
These  irregularities  were  undoubtedly  intentional.  They  were 
possibly  intended  to  avoid  an  appearance  of  tedious  mathe- 
matical symmetry.  It  is  possible  that  these  irregularities  are 
connected  with  a  purposed  scheme  of  exaggerating  perspective 
effects  from  certain  points  of  view.  This  has  been  positively 
asserted  by  Emile  Boutmey  for  the  metope  spaces  of  the  east 
front  of  the  Parthenon.  See  reference  to  Boutmey's  book  in 
note  to  page  26.  Although  the  irregularities  mentioned  have 
been  proven  by  Mr.  Penrose  to  exist,  he  has  not  attempted  to 
explain  them. 

PAGE  45.  "  The  flat  stone  roofs  sometimes  used  by  the 
Egyptians."  This  sentence  implies  a  suggestion  not  intended 
by  the  author  that  flat  stone  roofs  were  not  always  used  in 
stone  buildings.  Flat  stone  roofs  were  used  invariably  in  the 
Egyptian  temples. 

PAGE  46.  "  Of  all  the  forms  of  column  and  capital  existing 
in  Egypt,  etc."  For  the  Ionic  capital  as  Egyptian  see  note  to 
page  27.  Clumsy  forms  of  a  Doric  capital  closely  resembling 
early  capitals  found  at  Athens  have  been  found  recently 
in  Egypt  by  the  English  excavator,  Mr.  Win.  M.  Flinders 
Petrie,  and  are  dated  to  the  very  high  antiquity  of  the  Pyramid 
Dynasties.  That  the  elementary  form  (basket  or  bell  shape) 
of  the  Corinthian  capital  is  found  in  Egypt  was  long  since 
pointed  out  by  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  (Crystal  Palace  Guide. 
1 857). 

PAGE  48.  The  remark  that  the  Corinthian  capital  is  a  de- 
velopment from  the  Ionic  is  just  and  highly  important. 


APPENJJIX.  141 

PAGE  50.  The  "  fret "  is  derived  from  Egypt.  The  "  honey- 
suckle "  is  attributed  at  present  to  Assyria  by  all  compendious 
authorities  but  it  has  quite  recently, been  conclusively  proven 
to  be  derived  both  in  Assyria  arid  in  Greece  from  an  Egyptian 
lotus-palmette. 

PAGE  53.  The  supposed  "water-leaf"  of  Fig.  54  is  a  phase 
of  the  egg-and-dart  molding  (Fig.  47  and  compare  Fig.  48). 

PAGES  70,  72.  "To give  any  expression  to  the  countenance  re- 
quires a  higher  exercise  of  art  .  .  .  The  Egyptians  couid  per- 
haps have  done  it,  but  it  was  not  in  keeping  with  their  intention 
and  the  genius  of  their  art."  This  has  been  the  usual  view  of 
Egyptian  sculpture  but  it  has  been  absolutely  reversed  by  the 
Egyptian  statues  of  the  Pyramid  period  which  have  been  dis- 
covered in  recent  years.  Witness  the  "  Scribe  "  in  the  Louvre, 
the  "Wooden  Man  of  Boulak"  in  the  Ghizeh  Museum,  the 
statues  of  Kefert  and  Ra-hotep,  and  several  others  in  the  same 
Collection.  A  highly  expressive  and  realistic  portrait  art  is 
also  occasionally  found  in  later  times  of  Egyptian  sculpture — 
for  instance  the  portrait  bust  commonly  called  that  of  Queen 
Taia,  in  the  Ghizeh  Museum. 

PAGE  74.  For  the  Gate  of  the  Lions  at  Mycense  as  art  of  a 
race  preceding  the  Greeks,  see  note  to  page  14. 


INDEX. 


Abacus,  47;    Doric,  20,  21,  22;  Ionic, 

29,  31  ;  Corinthian,  39. 
Acanthus,  37, 50,  56. 
vKgiiietan  (Statues,  79,  82. 
Ageladas,  83, 120. 
Agesander,  124,  131 . 
Agora,  39,  44. 
Agoracritus,  96. 
Aleamenes,  96,  99, 131. 
Alto-relievo,  64,  65,  105. 
Amazon,  The,  115, 116. 
Anta,  25,  39,  49. 
Apollo  Alexicacus,  The,  84. 
Apollo  Belvedere,   The,   115-116,  117, 

119. 

A  polio  of  Tenea,  78. 
Apollo  Kpicurius,  Temple  of,  99-100. 
Apollonius,  127,  129. 
Apoxyomenos,  The,  110, 116-118. 
Arch,  The,  9,  49, 137. 
Architecture,  Greek,  9-58;  Origin  of, 

12-13;   Analysis  of,  42^58  ;    Charac- 
teristics of,  5U53. 
Architrave.— Doric,  12,20,  22;  Ionic, 

:il,32. 

Artemis,  71. 
Artemisium,  The,  112. 
Arts  in  Greece,  Origin  of  the,  67,  68. 
Athene.— Temples  of,   16,  27,  37,  79  ; 

Statue  of,  72 ;  Sculptures  in  Honor 

of,  85-S8, 89-98. 
Athenian  School,  The  Later,  103,  105- 

109.    ' 

Athenodorus,  124. 
Balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Wingless 

Victory,  102,  10:!. 
Basilica,  44. 
Bas-relief,  48,  59,  60,  61,  61-65,  69,  76,  77, 

78,  1  ftV  109. 
Bronze,  63-64. 
Brynxis,  102,  104. 
Calamis,  84. 
Callon,  81. 
Calllcrates,84. 
Capital.— Doric,  15,  20,  21,  22;   Ionic, 

29  ;  Corinthian,  37,  48  ;  Foliated,  47  ; 

Karly    Norman    Cushion,  48;     Ro- 
manesque Block,  48. 


Caryatids,  35,  51. 

Carving,  59.  60. 

Casting  in  Hollow  Form,  64. 

Castor,  134. 

Cavo-relievo,  65, 72. 

Cell,  The  Sacred,  10,  11,  17,  42. 

Centaurs  and  L,apitha?,  Contest  of. 

59.  88-89,  99,  100. 
Cephissus,  The,  96. 
Ceres,  The,  96. 
Chares,  113. 

Chryselephantine,  62,  10"). 
Cleomenes,  129,  131. 
Coins,  68,  70. 

Color  in  Statue,  80-81, 105. 
Column,  The,  11,   12,  42,  46;    Of  the 

Parthenon,  17,  21 ;  Doric,  20,  21,  47  ; 

Position  and  Spacing,  52. 
Columnre  Celatee,  34,  111. 
Corinthian  Order,  The,  12,  35-30,  48; 

The  Capital  of,  37,  48. 
Cornice,  12.  20,  23-25,  32. 
Corona,  20, 24,  25. 
( 'ountenance,  Expression  of,  70,  72, 

81,141. 

Cyma,49;  Recta,  31,  S3, -53;  Reversa,53. 
Cypselus,  Chest  of,  63. 
Diedalides,  62. 
Dentil  Band,  31,32. 
Diadumenos,  The,  118-119. 
Diana,  Temple  of,  at  Kphesus,  34,  51. 
Diana,  with  the  Stag,  119,  120. 
Dipo?nus,  75. 

Discobolus,  The,  119-120, 121. 
Doric  Order,  The,  12-27;  Temple  at 

Corinth,  14  ;  Temple  at  Psestum,  19  ; 

Capitals,  15,  20,  21,  22;  Cornice,  24- 

25  ;  Examples  Remaining,  27. 
Draperies,  70,  100,  101. 
Dying  Gladiator,  The,    113,    121-122. 

123. 

Echinus,  20,  21,22. 
Egg  Enrichment,  53,  55,  57. 
Elgin  Marbles,  19,  13S. 
Enrichments.— Egg,  53,  55,57:  \Vatcr- 

leaf,  53,  55,  56,57,  141;  Honeysuckle, 

39,  50,  53,  55,  57,  58,  141 ;  Guilloche, 

53,  56. 


144 


INDEX. 


Entablature,  1-',  20,23,  32,  35,  39. 

Entasis,  21, 25, 26. 

Erechtheum,  32-:!5,  51  ;  Ionic  Order 
from,  31;  Arrangement,  43-44 ;  Por- 
tico, 54 ;  Ornamentation,  54 ;  Capi- 
ta I,  55. 

Erotria,  Theater  of,  137. 

Facia,  24, 32,  57. 

Fates,  The  Three,  01,  05, 06. 

Faun  of  Praxiteles,  The,  120-121,  122. 

Fillets,  20,21,  49. 

Fluted  Columns,  46. 

Frets,  58  ;  Doric,  27,  50,  141. 

Frieze.— Doric,  12,  20,  22;  Ionic,  31; 
Ot  Theseum,  H2-83  ;  Of  Parthenon. 
£5-88;  Of  Temple  of  Apollo  Epi- 
curius,  100;  Of  Temple  of  Wingless 
Victory,  101. 

Gate  of  the  Lions,  14,  67,  74,  138,  141. 

Glyptics,  59. 

(ireeks  and  Amazons,  Contest  of,  00, 
100. 

Guilloche,  53,  56,  58. 

Guttw,  20.  22. 

Harpv  Tomb,  Bas-reliefs  011  the,  68, 
60,  70. 

Hegesias,  81. 

Hermes,  The,  97.  00. 

Honeysuckle,  30,  50,  53,  55,  57,  58,  141. 

Homer,  63. 

Horse's  Head  from  the  Car  of  Selene, 
02-04. 

Houses,  43. 

HypostyleHall,21,43. 

Icti nus' l(i,  84,00. 

Ilissus.The,  96. 

Ionic  Order,  The,  12,  28-,35,  130-140; 
The  Column,  28-20 ;  The  Capital,  20  ; 
The  Entablature,  32. 

Iris,  The,  92,  93. 

Ivory,  62,  84,98. 

Kerameikos,  85. 

Laocodn,  The,  113,  122-123,  121. 

Leochares,  102,  103,  101. 

Lion  Tomb  at  Cnidus,  35. 

Lotus-column,  47. 

Lucia  n,98,  110.  120. 

Lysierates,  Monument  of,  38,  50; 
Corinthian  Order,  36;  Capital,  37; 
Frieze,  111. 

Lvsippus,  110-111,  112. 

Marble,  Kinds  of,  60. 

Mausoleum  of  Halicarnassus,  35.  45, 
101-104. 

Metopes,  20,  2},  52,  75,  81,  82;  Of  the 
Parthenon,  88-80. 

Mra/.o-relicvo,  65,  111. 

Michelangelo,  50,  12:',,  127,  128,  120. 

Minerva  of  the  Vatican,  The,  12:i-125. 

Molding,  60. 

Moldings,  40. 

Mosaic  from  Temple  of  Zeus  at 
<  (lytnpia,  53. 

Mutules,  20.24. 

Myron,  110-120. 

Ni'ke,  The,  91-05. 


Niobe  Figures,  The,  70,  103,  12-3-127, 
145. 

Octostvle,  84. 

Onatas,  84. 

Orders,  The  Greek,  12-53  ;  Doric,  12- 
27;  Ionic,  28-35;  Corinthian,  35-39. 
Ornaments,  30,  40-51 ;  Colored,  27, 
51,  139  ;  Examples,  55-58. 

Ovolo.  20,  40,  53. 

1'iBonius,  99. 

Parthenon,  The,  10,  16-19,  21,  25,  84; 
Columns,  17;  Roof,  10;  Correction 
of  Optical  Illusions,  25-26,  139 ;  Or- 
naments, 27;  Accuracy  in  Plan- 
ning, 43, 140;  Spaces  for  Sculpture, 
51  ;  Metope,  52;  Sculpture  in  Frieze, 
65,  85-88;  Sculptures,  84-98. 

Patera,  05,  96. 

Pausanias,  37,  68,  98,  99,  104, 115. 

Pediment,  20,  25,  44-45,  51,  79;  Of 
Theseum,  82  ;  Of  Parthenon,  89-98. 

Pelasgic  Art,  14,  138. 

Peplos,  &r>,  87. 

Pergamus,  School  of  Sculpture  of, 
113-114. 

Peristyle.— Greek  Doric,  23  ;  Of  Ionic 
Columns,  102. 

Phidias,  10,  62 ;  Sculptures  of  Parthe- 
non, 83-98;  Other  Works,  98;  Suc- 
cessors of,  99-114. 

Pilasters,  11. 

Plan  of  a  Greek  Temple,  42. 

Pliny,  34,  63,  68,  75,  111,  112,  113,  114, 
118,  123,  12-5,  127,  129. 

Plutarch,  62,  63,  104. 
'ointing,  60. 

•olycletus,  110, 115,  118,  119,  120. 
"olydorus,  124. 

'raxiteles,  97,  99,  103,  104,  107.  113,  120, 
125,  129. 

^rometheus,  The,  95. 
'ropylsea,  The,  17. 
'rosperine,  The,  06. 
'yromachus,  113. 
'ythis,  102,  103. 

Quadriga,  35. 

Quintilian,  119. 

Relief,  Sculpture  in,  61-6'-. 

Rhodes,  School  of  Sculpture  of,  113. 

Roofs,  45, 140. 

Scopas,  34,37,  102,  103,  107,  108,  109, 112. 
113,  125. 

Sculpture,  59-135;  Process,  50-60 ;  Ma- 
terials, 6M>4,  66 ;  Various  Forms, 
64-66  ;  Origin,  67-68  ;  Draperies,  70  : 
Comparison  of  Asiatic  Statues  with 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian,  70,  72,  74; 
Athenian  Style,  81-84;  Theseum, 
82-83,  84;  Grand  Style  of  Phidias, 
84-98;  Successorsof Phidias, 99-111 : 
Later  Athenian  School,  105-109 ; 
Macedonian  Period,  109-112;  Other 
Schools,  113, 114  ;  Examples,  115-135. 

Scyllis,  75. 

Sphyrelaton,  63. 

Spirals  of  the  Volutes,  34. 


IXDKX. 


145 


Statuary,  50,  65-66. 

Statues.— Position,  (55 ;  Si/o,  65;  Sub- 
jects. 65-6ti;  vtCginetan  Statues,  7!l, 
82;  Improvement  in,  82,  86;  Kx- 
amples,  115-135. 

Stiacciato,  65. 

Stone,  Statues  in,  fil. 

Stylobate,  20,21,  31. 

Taper,  25. 

Tauriscus,  127. 

Temple,  The  (ireek,  10-11 ;  Egyptian, 
10,  11;  Remains  of  Doric,  27;  The 
Parthenon,  16-26;  Krechtheum,  32- 
34,  35 ;  Temple  of  Diana  at  Kphesus, 
34;  Of  Athene  Alea,  157;  Of  Apollo 
Pidymrous,  39;  Plan  of  Temple, 
42-44;  Walls,  44-45;  Roof,  45-46; 
Openings,  46;  Columns,  46-48;  Pec- 
orut ion,  49-51, 79-98;  Theseum,  82-83; 
Temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia.  99- 
100 ;  Ol  Wingless  Victory,  101,  102, 
10'!. 


Terra  Cotta,  01. 

Theater,  39-J1,  41,45. 

Theseum,  82;  Doric  Order  from  the, 

20 ;  Frieze,  82-83  ;  Metopes,  82. 
Theseus,  The,  91, 92,  96. 
Timber  Construction,  12-13, 15,  22, 138. 
Tlmotheus,  102, 101. 
Toro  Farnese,  The,  113,  127-12S. 
Torso  Belvedere,  The,  129. 
Torus  Molding,  49,  53,  56. 
Treasury  of  Atreus,  The,  14,  MS. 
Triglyph,  20,  22,  139. 
Velarium.  46. 

Venus  de'  Medici,  The,  129, 131. 
Venus  of  Melos,  The,  131-133. 
Venus  of  the  Capitol,  The,  129, 130. 
Volutes,  28,31,37. 
Water-leaf,  53,  55,  56,  57,  141. 
Wingless  Victory,  Temple   of.    101  ; 

Frieze,  101 ;  Balustrade,  102,  103. 
Wood,  62. 
Wrestlers,  The,  133, 134-135. 


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By  WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE  THACKERAY.  The  text  is  em- 
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THE  STORY  OF  GOTTLIEB. 

By  DR.  WM.  F.  WARREN,  President  of  Boston  University. 
16mo,  white  vellum,  60  cents. 

This  simple  tale  is  beautiful  and  inspiring.  It  describes 
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"It  is  a  strong  book— strong  in  its  simplicity,  its  truthful- 
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THE  BUSY  MAN'S  BIBLE. 

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